156 For a discussion see Flower 2000, pp. 34–64 and P. Kehne, “Augustus und ‘seine’ spolia opima: Hoffnungen auf den Triumph des Nero Claudius Drusus?” in T. Hantos and G.A. Lehmann (eds.), Althistorisches Kolloquium aus Anlass des 70. Geburtstages von Jochen Bleicken, 1998, pp. 187–211.
157 Dio 55.2.4.
158 Dio 55.2.4.
159 Suetonius, Tiberius 50.1.
160 Suetonius, Claudius 1.4–5.
161 Livy, Periochae 139: “Ara dei Caesaris ad confluentem Araris et Rhodani dedicata, sacerdote creato C. Iulio Vercondaridubno Aeduo”. For a full discussion of the date of the altar’s constitution versus its dedication, see Duncan Fishwick, The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Roman Empire, Vol. 3, Part 1, Boston, 2002, pp. 13–19.
162 A. Futurell, Blood in the Arena: The Spectacle of Roman Power, Austin, 1997, p. 82.
163 Futrell 1997, pp. 81–82.
164 Fishwick 2003, p. 105.
165 The layout of the site suggests an amphitheatre was an integral part of the sanctuary concept from its inception, since it is located at the western end of the site and thus within the sacred grounds; and seating around the arena was marked with the names of the tribes of the Concilium Galliarum of Tres Galliae (surviving inscriptions name the Arverni, Bituriges and Tricasses): Futrell 1997, p. 83. The stone amphitheatre was not erected until 19 CE as evidenced by an inscription (AE 1959, 61) dedicated to Ti. Caesar by C. Iulius Rufus of Santonum, the sacerdos of the sanctuary, and his son and grandson who together paid for the building. It was enlarged and embellished in the second century CE.
166 A. Rozier (ed.), “Le Sanctuaire Federal des Trois Gaules: Localisation Inconnue”, La Ficèlle 9, Lyon, 2009, p. 6: see map fig. 19. Fishwick 2003, p. 109: there was an architectural precedent for the double ramp design as a processional route at the sanctuary of Fortuna Pimigenia at Praeneste, see plates 107, p. 109 and 108, p. 110.
167 Several variants were minted over a forty year span under both Augustus and Tiberius in different denominations, but each reproduced the same reverse design of the altar, two flanking columns and winged victories. Examples: Augustus: as, RIC I 230; sestertius, BMCRE 565 and RIC I 231a. Tiberius: as, RIC I 31, I 277, I 588; dupondius, RIC I 58 and I 236a.
168 One theory is that the structure shown on the coin is actually a curtain wall and that the altar located on the inside was reached by an entrance-way in the manner of the Ara Pacis in Rome: see H. Dragendorff, “Der Altar der Roma und des Augustus in Lugdunum”, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Institut 52, 1937, pp. 111–119 and related comments of Fishwick 2003, pp. 111–112.
169 Fishwick 2003, p. 111: the first-generation columns may have been brick faced with a skin of marble and were later replaced with ones of granite under Hadrian. Tradition has it that these columns were cut in two and transported to the Church of St Martin at the Abbey of Ainay where they still support the cupola; see Rozier 2009, p. 10.
170 Fishwick 2003, p. 109, footnote 21 cites M. Janon who noted there were four Victories at the Augusteum at Nemausus/Nîmes arranged in a square with a small altar at the centre.
171 Fishwick 2003, p. 111.
172 Rozier 2009, p. 10.
173 See Fishwick 1987, plates II-IV; Rozier 2009, p. 10.
174 Rozier 2009, p. 6.
175 Rozier 2009, p. 10.
176 Fishwick 2003, p. 109.
177 Livy, Periochae 139.
178 Futrell 1997, p. 84.
179 Futrell 1997, p. 84.
180 Dio 54.36.2–4.
181 Dio 54.36.4.
182 Dio 54.36.2–3.
183 Suetonius, Claudius 2.1.
184 Dio 54.36.4.
Chapter 6: Drusus the Consul
1 Dio 55.1.
2 F.R. Cowell, Cicero and the Roman Republic, London, 1962, pp. 166–171.
3 A. Everitt, Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome’s Greatest Politician, New York, 2001, p. 87.
4 Everitt 2006, pp. 209–211.
5 Dio 53.12.1.
6 Dio 55.1.1; Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.117.
7 Livy, Periochae 208.
8 Frontinus, Aqueducts 2.129.
9 Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.117.
10 Augustus, Res Gestae 2.12.
11 A controversial cover building designed by Richard Meier and opened in 2006 now houses the Ara Pacis.
12 R.A. Staccioli, Guida di Roma Antica, Milan, 1986, pp. 347–8.
13 Staccioli 1986, p. 348.
14 Augustus, Res Gestae 2.12.
15 An alternative interpretation is the woman is Julia, Agrippa’s wife.
16 The identification of the figures continues to be controversial; for example, see John R. Crawford, “A Child Portrait of Drusus Junior on the Ara Pacis,” American Journal of Archaeology 26, 1922, pp. 307–315, who discusses A. von Domaszewski, “Die Familie des Augustus auf der Ara Pacis,” Jh. Oest. Arch. I. 6, 1903, pp. 57ff.; Mrs. Arthur Strong, Roman Sculpture from Augustus to Constantine, 1907, pp. 39ff.; J. Sieveking, “Zur Ara Pacis Augustae,” in Jh. Oest. Arch. I. 10, 1907, pp. 175ff.; F. Studniczka, “Zur Ara Pacis,” Abh. Sächs. Ges., Phil.-Hist. Kl. 27, 1909, pp. 911ff.; and E. Petersen’s exhaustive study, Ara Pacis Augustae, 1902. Most authors agree the figure in caligae and wearing the paludamentum is Drusus the Elder.
17 Dio 55.1.1.
18 Dio 55.1.1–2.
19 Suetonius, Tiberius 1.2–4.
20 Cassiodorus, Chronicon 385D. An inscription, CIL 13.5688, 5679, found at Langres, attesting to a priest of Augustus, is noted by Severley 2003, p. 117.
21 Florus 4.30.27: “Ea denique in Germania pax erat, ut mutati homines, alia terra, caelum ipsum mitius molliusque solito videretur”.
22 Dio 55.1.2. Florus 2.30.25–26 reports that Drusus divided up the livestock, loot and captives from the defeated tribes and sold them in the manner of a conqueror: “Victor namque Drusus equos, pecora, torques eorum ipsoque praedam divisit et vendidit”.
23 Dio 55.1.2.
24 Florus 4.30.27: “Invisum atque inaccessum in id tempus Hercynium saltum patefecit”.
25 Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 6.25; Tacitus, Germania 28, 30; Annales 2.45; Pliny, Naturalis Historia 4.25 (as Hercynius jugum), 10.67 (as Hercynius saltus); Livy 5.24; Ptolemy 2.11.5; Strabo 4.6.9; 7.1.3, 5.
26 Pomponius Mela, De Chorographia 3.29.
27 Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 7.25.
28 K. Bertsch, Geschichte des deutschen Waldes, Jena, 1953, p. 119, fig. 95, cited by H. Jahnkun, “Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaftsordnung der germanischen Stämme in der Zeit der römischen Angriffskriege”, in H. Temporini & W. Haase (eds.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel d. neueren Forschung, Vol. II.5.1, Stuttgart, 1976, pp. 71–73.
29 Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 6.25–28; Walter Woodburn Hyde, “The Curious Animals of the Hercynian Forest”, The Classical Journal 13.4 (January 1918), p. 231.
30 Dio 55.1.2. Marsi: Tacitus, Germania 2.4. Little is known about the Marsi nation at this period though they are believed to have lived in the region bounded by the Elbe, Lippe, Rhine and Ruhr Rivers. In 9 CE they would side with the Cherusci in the coalition that defeated the Romans at Teutoburg, and figure much more prominently in the subsequent wars undertaken by Germanicus.
31 Dio 55.1.2–3.
32 Dio 55.2.4–5; Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.117.
33 A.L. Kutter, Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Boscoreale Cups, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, pp. 94–123. Kuttner argues persuasively that the children and adults are Gauls and that the event depicted occurred in 13 or 10 BCE (pp. 118–119), rejecting the consensus that they are “leaders of a newly conquered tribe” who are “handing over their children as hostages for continued good behavior” (p. 99). Creating champions of the Roman way by educating the children of non-Roman rulers in Rome was a practice which Augustus, in fact, carried out routinely with foreign peoples, both adversaries and allies, citing Sueton
ius, Augustus 48. I agree with Kuttner’s benign interpretation of the event but do not accept they are Gauls, preferring the identification of the non-Romans as generic Germanic stereotypes, and suggest the date could be any associated with the German War (12–9 BCE).
34 Dio 54.34.1–2.
35 Dio 55.2.4.
36 Dio 55.1.3.
37 Dio 55.1.3; cf. Suetonius, Claudius 1.2. D. Felton, Haunted Greece and Rome: Ghost Stories from Classical Antiquity, Austin, 1999, pp. 31–32, notes a tradition in classical literature for “female ghost warning figures”. For a summary of theories attempting to explain apparitions see Brian Righi, Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists: An Exploration of the Supernatural Through History, Woodbury, Minn., 2008, pp. 59–83.
38 Suetonius, Claudius 1.2: “species barabarae mulieris humana amplior victorem tendere ultra sermone Latino prohibuisset”.
39 Paoli 1963, p. 279; Felton 1999, pp. 1–21.
40 J.B. Russell, A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics, and Pagans, London, 1995. The Greeks believed in creatures of the night, the leaper ephialtes and the ogre mora.
41 N. Kiessling, The incubus in English Literature: Provenance and Progeny, Seattle, 1977, p. 5; Russell 1995.
42 M. Hersen, S.M. Turner, D.C. Beidel (eds.), Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis, Hoboken, 2007.
43 J.A. Cheyne. “Preventing and Coping with Sleep Paralysis”, http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html
44 Dio 55.1.3 goes on to comment, “it is indeed marvellous that such a voice should have come to any man from the Deity, yet I cannot discredit the tale; for Drusus immediately departed …”
45 Dio 55.1.3; Florus 2.30.23–24; Valerius Maximus 5.5.3. The mention of Marcommanic spoils is curious since the accounts do not mention Drusus’ forces engaging them.
46 Ptolemy 2.10.
47 Poppenburg in Lower Saxony on the Hellweg has recently been proposed by Jürgen Martin Regel, http://zocher-regel.gmxhome.de/ArbaloSchlacht/register.html
48 Seneca, Consolatio Ad Marciam 3.1: “intrauerat penitus Germaniam et ibi signa Romana fixerat ubi uix ullos esse Romanos notum erat”. Dieter Timpe suspects dissent among Drusus’ leadership team as a reason for turning back at the Elbe, drawing an analogy with Alexander’s troops who mutinied at Hyphasis River: D. Timpe, “Drusus’ Umkehr an der Elbe,” Römisch-germanische Begegnungen in der späten Republik und frühen Kaiserzeit. Voraussetzungen – Konfrontationen – Wirkungen. Gesammelte Studien, München/Leipzig, 2006, pp. 171–190.
49 Dio 55.1.5.
50 Anne Minard, “Perseids: What They Are, How to Watch the Meteors, More”, National Geographic News, 12 August 2009: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090812-perseids-perseid-meteor-shower.html
51 Strabo 7.1.3; K.-P. Johne, Die Römer an der Elbe: Das Stromgebiet der Elbe im geographischen Weltbild und im politischen Bewusstsein der griechisch-römischen Antike, Berlin, 2006, p. 103.
52 Velleius Paterculus 2.97.3: “Sed… fatorum iniquitas consulem, agentum annum tricesimum, rapuit”.
53 Dio 55.1.4.
54 Livy, Periochae 142: “Ipse ex fractura, equo super crus eius conlapso …”
55 Hughston Sports Medicine Foundation, http://www.hughston.com/hha/a.horse.htm; see also L.G. Danielsson and N.E. Westlin, “Riding Accidents”, Acta Orthopaedica 44.6 (1973), pp. 597–603.
56 Hughston Sports Medicine Foundation, http://www.hughston.com/hha/a.horse.htm
57 Pam Hunter: http://www.petpeoplesplace.com/resources/articles/horses/242-horse-weight-chart.htm
58 John R. Cameron, James G. Skofronick, Roderick M. Grant, Physics of the Body, Madison, Wisconsin, 1999; David Taylor, “Fracture mechanics: How does bone break?”, Nature Materials 2 (1 March 2003), pp. 133–134.
59 University of Michigan Health System, http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/sma/sma_femurfra_sma.htm
60 John Scarborough, “Roman Medicine and the Legions: A Reconsideration” in Medical History, Vol. 12.3 (1968), p. 257 and p. 260 cites Velleius Paterculus, 2.114.1–3 (by implication).Vegetius, De Re Militari 2.10; Roy Davies, Service in the Roman Army, Edinburgh, 1989, pp. 212–214.
61 Scarborough, 1968, p. 257 cites Plutarch, Marius 6.3. Davies, 1989, p. 215. Davies 1989, p. 214.
62 For fractures of the long bones (humerus and femur) see Hippokrates 3.7.4 (On Surgery 15, 16), and for fractures with wounds, Hippokrates 3.148ff. (On Fractures 24–32).
63 Hippokrates, On Fractures 15–18. Hippokrates describes how to make a mechanism to support the leg using rods, soft Egyptian circlets and leather thongs in Fractures 29.
64 Davies 1989, p. 215; Trajan’s Column scene XL; Celsus 8.10.
65 Celsus, De Medicina 5.26.21–24.
66 Davies 1989, p. 215.
67 Suetonius, Claudius 1.3.
68 Dio 55.2.1. Tacitus, Annales 3.5.
69 Valerius Maximus 5.5.3; Dio 55.2.1; Seager 1972, p. 27. Tacitus, Annales 3.5.
70 Suetonius, Claudius 1.1; Livy, Periochae 142: “Corpus a Nerone fratre, qui nuntio ualetudinis euocatus raptim adcucurrerat …”
71 Valerius Maximus 5.5.3. Namantabagius appears as Antabagius in some versions of the text.
72 Dio 55.2.1.
73 Valerius Maximus 5.5.3.
74 Johne 2006, p. 104.
75 Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia 7.20.84.
76 Johne 2006, p. 105.
77 Valerius Maximus 5.5.3: “Drusus quoque, quamquam fato iam suo quam illius officio propior erat, uigore spiritus et corporis uiribus conlapsus, eo ipso tamen, quo uita ac mors distinguitur, momento legiones cum insignibus suis fratri obuiam procedere iussit, ut imperator salutaretur”.
78 Livy 2.19–20.
79 Suetonius, Claudius 1.3; Jürgen Martin Regel suggests Castra Scelerata is modern Schellerten, which he argues also preserves the outline of the camp in its street plan and bears a close resemblance to the plan of the fort at Hedemünden on the Werra: http://zocher-regel.gmxhome.de/ArbaloSchlacht/13Scelerata.html and http://zocher-regel.gmxhome.de/ArbaloSchlacht/13Scelerata.html#reference-2
80 Dio 55.2.1.
81 Dio 55.2.1; Valerius Maximus 5.5.3.
82 Livy, Periochae 142: “Ipse ex fractura, equo super crus eius conlapso XXX die quam id acciderat, mortuus”.
Chapter 7: Drusus the Hero
1 Hippokates, On Fractures 35.
2 J. Bartelmo & J. Curry (eds.), Handbook of Diseases: Causes, Signs and Symptoms, Patient Care, Philadelphia, 2009.
3 See http://www.emedicinehealth.com/gangrene/article_em.htm#Gangrene%20Overview
4 Celsus, De Medicina 5.26.31B-34; see also Hippocrates 3.352, 360, 432 (Joints 63, 69; Mochlikon 35).
5 See http://www.emedicinehealth.com/tetanus/article_em.htm#Tetanus%20Overview
6 Consolatio ad Liviam 83ff., 169ff.; Seneca, Dialogi 6.3.1,11.15.5.
7 Flower 1996, p. 2 notes that the death mask is not to be confused with the imago made during life.
8 Paoli 1973, p. 128.
9 Suetonius, Claudius 1.3.
10 Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 3.1.
11 Consolatio ad Liviam 177.
12 Suetonius, Tiberius 7.3: “Drusum fratrem in Germania amisit, cuius corpus pedibus toto itinere praegrediens Romam usque peruexit”.
13 Suetonius, Claudius 1.3: “Corpus eius per municipiorum coloniarumque primores suscipientibus obviis scribarum decuriis ad urbem devectum sepultumque est in campo Martio”.
14 Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 3.1.
15 Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 3.1.
16 Seneca, Consolatio ad Marciam 3.1.
17 Suetonius, Claudius 1.3.
18 Paoli 1973, p. 129.
19 Dio 55.2.3.
20 Paoli 1973, p. 129.
21 Paoli 1973, p. 130.
22 Paoli 1973, p. 130.
23 Tacitus, Annales, 3.5: “circumfusas lecto Claudiorum Iuliorumque imagines”. Polybius 6.54; Flower 1996, p. 2.
24 Tacitus, Annales, 3.5. Peter Michael Swan argues that the eulogy took place from the Julian
Rostrum in front of the Temple of Deified Iulius Caesar, not the public speaker’s platform outside the Senate House: P.M. Swan, The Augustan Succession: An Historical Commentary on Cassius Dio’s Roman History Books 55–56 (9 BC – AD 14), Oxford, 2004, p. 45.
25 Tacitus, Annales, 3.5: “defletum in foro”. Polybius 6.53. For a full discussion of funerary practices for public figures in Rome see Diane Favro and Christopher Johanson in “Death in Motion: Funeral Processions in the Roman Forum” in Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 69.1, 2010, pp. 12–37.
26 Tacitus, Annales, 3.5. Paoli 1973, p. 131.
27 Tacitus, Annales, 3.5: “laudatum pro rostris”. Suetonius, Tiberius 6.4.
28 Bannon 1997, p. 179. Drusus was regarded as the equal of either Augustus or Tiberius for bringing glory to his family and for his achievements, e.g.Valerius Maximus, 4.3.3.: “Drusum etiam Germanicum, eximiam Claudiae familiae gloriam patriaeque rarum ornamentum, et quod super omnia est, operum suorum pro habitu aetatis magnitudine uitrico pariter ac fratri Augustis duobus rei publicae diuinis oculis mirifice respondentem”.
29 Dio 55.2.3.
30 Dio 55.2.2; Paoli 1973, p. 42, note 93, p. 47: the pomerium traced the outer limit of the Four Regions of Rome but was extended by Sulla and later Iulius Caesar.
31 Livy, Periochae 142 “Laudatus est a Caesare Augusto uitrico. Et supremis eius plures honores dati” refers to ‘many distinctions’ conferred on Drusus; Suetonius, Claudius 1.5.
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