33 Scholars disagree about the date of the Nei Jing, opinions ranging from 200 A.D. to 475 B.C., with most agreement between 100 and 300 B.C. See Kaptchuk-1, p, 358, Hsu and Peacher, p. 17; and Chuang-2, p. 21; Lu and Needham, pps. 69 and 89; ACTS, p. 338; Xie and Huang, p. 369.
34 Lu and Needham, p. 73; ACTS, p. 345; Chuang-2, p. 6.
35 Lee and Bae, p. 3; Wang-1, p. 85.
36 The Shan Hai Jing is though to date from about 500 B.C., but contains material from prior to 1,000 B.C. - see Lu and Needham, p. 70; Schiffeler, p. II.
37 Su Wen, 14; The Shuo Wen Jie Zi, (Explaining the Graphs and Explicating their Combinations), an authoritative Han dynasty dictionary, says “bian” means “curing of diseases by pressing with a stone.”
38 Qiu, p. 2.
39 Chuang-2, p. 5; Lu and Needham, p. 73.
40 ACTS, p. 345.
41 Qiu, p. 2.
42 Lavier-6, p. 22.
43 Wieger, p. 5; Wu, K.C., p. 26 and 31.
44 Hsu and Peacher, p. 7.
45 Wu, K.C., p. 31.
46 Lavier-6, p. 17.
47 Covell, J.C., p. 21.
48 Unschuld-1, p. 35 points out that during the Shang dynasty, the wu were the leaders or chiefs of their clan, and were responsible for the sacrifices to the deified ancestor, Di. This practice carried over into the Zhou dynasty before dying out. See also Porter, p. 19: “Ch’i (shaman emperor of the Xia dynasty) was the successor of another shaman, Yu the Great. When Yu founded the Xia dynasty around 2200 B.C., he ordered his officials to compile a guide to the realm. The result was the Shan Hai Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas) to which later emperors added as their knowledge of the realm’s mysteries increased.”
49 Covell, A.C.-2, p. 70.
50 Hume, pps. 60-61.
51 Lu and Needham, p. 78; Needham, p. 134.
52 Chuang-2, p. 6.
53 Unschuld-1, p. 45.
54 Covell, J.C. p. 44.
55 Lu and Needham, p. 78.
56 Covell, J.C. p. 21.
57 Covell, A,C.-2. p. 10.
58 Wu, K.C. p. 11; Needham, p. 306-307.
59 Needham, p. 327.
60 Eckman-2.
61 Hyatt, p. 18; Wu, K.C., p. 54.
62 Hoizey and Hoizey,p. 5.
63 Shen Nong’s Pharmacopeia was probably written around the second century B.C. - See ACTS p. 352.
64 A “radical” is a part of a Chinese ideogram which frequently conveys information about its meaning, as opposed to its pronunciation, which latter aspect is frequently conveyed by a “phonetic” component.
65 Wu, K.C., p. 57. Interestingly, Gongsun is the name of the acupuncture Point Sp. 4, which commands the opening of the Extraordinary Meridian Chong Mo, which is believed to be the main pathway for distribution of Ancestral or Original energy (Yuan Qi) and Essence (Jing) which we receive from our parents.
66 Hucker, p. 26. Also note the following quotation from Porter, p. 21, “When Yu the Great founded the Xia dynasty near the end of the third millenium, it could only have been on the basis of these Yang Shao-Lungshan cultures that he and his ministers compiled the Shan Hai Jing, the shaman’s guide to the sacred world.”
67 The Five Premier Emperors are Huang Di, Di Ku, Zhuan Xu, Yao and Shun.
68 Lao Zi was situated in the sixth century B.C. in the Historical Records, Chap. 63, but some scholars date him as late as the fourth century B.C. which is also the estimated date of Zhuang Zi. Porter, p. 37 notes that “among the areas in which Lao Zi possessed uncommon knowledge was the realm of ritual, a not unusual specialization for someone whose spiritual ancestors were shamans.
69 ‘Jia’ means house, family or school.
70 ‘Jiao’ means a religious sect.
71 Needham, p. 56.
72 e.g., Guan Yin Zi, an eighth century Taoist text cited by Needham, p. 73 says, “Those who are good at archery learnt from the bow and not from Yi the Archer. Those who manage boats learnt from boats and not from Wo (the legendary mighty boatman). Those who can think learnt for themselves, and not from the Sages.”
73 Szuma Chien, pps. 71-72; De Woskin pps. 11-12.
74 Needham, pps. 280-281.
75 ibid. p. 286.
76 Levenson and Schurmann, p. 43.
77 Lu and Needham, p. 157.
78 Liu and Liu, p. 209.
79 ibid. p. 209.
80 Wong and Wu, p. 41.
81 Su Wen, 13. Author’s adaptation based on Lu-1, p. 83. Jiudai Ji was legendarily contemporaneous with Shen Nong. As Qi Bo learned medicine by studying the treatment of patients two generations past, i.e., in the time of Shen Nong, the implication is that Jiudai Ji was the originator of TOM. This hypothesis is givien in Chuang-2, p. 22.
82 Su Wen, 13 abridged from Lu-1, p. 82.
83 It should be noted, however, that the traditional view is to regard the most ancient of practices as the highest, and thus spiritual healing and its companion, education in the correct way of life (Dao), are the epitome of therapeutics, although no longer sufficient.
84 Lu and Needham, p. 78, quoting the Tso Chuan.
85 ibid., p. 80, quoting the Historical Record; Chuang-2, pps. 24-25; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 13-15; also known as Qin Yue-ren. According to Liaw (p. 31), Bian Que in ancient Chinese merely meant “practitioner,” and so was clearly not his original name.
86 Hume, p. 77.
87 According to Si-Ma Qian’s biography of Bian Que, which is cited by both De Woskin, p. 20 and Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 32. Liaw (p. 32) specifies that the assassin was hired by the Imperial Physician, Lee-peng.
88 Zhuang Zi, Chap. 29.
89 Mencius, Chap. 4., cited in Lu and Needham, p. 175.
90 Su Wen, Chap. 12.
91 Kaptchuk-1, p. 358.
92 The best translation being that of Unschuld-4.
93 Lu and Needham, p. 115.
94 Matsumoto and Birch, p. 114; Hashimoto, p. 42; Lee and Bae, p. 208; Back, pps. 24-25; Bischko, p. 33; Chamfrault, pps. 150-151; Lawson-Wood-4, pps. 64-66; and Connelly, p. 114.
95 Essentials, p. 56-57; Chu and Chu, p. 31; O’Connor and Bensky, p. 28; and NACA, Lesson 13, pps. 2-4 which gives the clearest description of the origin and significance of these two contrasting styles of pulse diagnosis.
96 Levenson and Schurmann, p. 79.
97 Also known as Cang Gong or Master of the Granary–his office in Shandong Province.
98 Liu and Liu, p. 200; Xie and Huang, p. 343; Lu and Needham, pps. 106-110 present an account of his case histories; An interesting sidelight on the history of corporal punishment can be found in Wallnöfer and Von Rottauscher, pps. 30-31, who relate the politically motivated sentencing of Chunyu Yi to having his limbs cut off, but Emperor Wen Ti pardoned him on account of the filial piety of Chunyu’s daughter, who offered herself as a slave to the Emperor. Wen Ti was so moved by her example that he later abolished punishment by maiming for the duration of his reign.
99 Chuang-2, pps. 25-26.
100 ibid. p. 27. Other accounts of Guo Yu can be found in Lu and Needham, p. 115 and Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 39-40.
101 For the opposing view, see Mann-5, pps. 28 and 36-38.
102 Lu and Needham, pps. 117-118. I should mention, however, that the succinct manner of describing Hua’s miraculous results is part of a Chinese cultural tradition in which poetic glorification seems to play a significant role, this comment applying equally to all those mentioned in this chapter.
103 “Jia Ji” means “Lining the Spine,” as noted in O’Connor and Bensky, p. 217.
104 Essentials, p. 291.
105 A symbolic reversal of roles? Cao Cao did eventually die in great pain from what was most probably a brain tumor, as related in Duke, p. 35.
106 Chuang-2, p. 29. For a contrary opinion, see Flaws’ editor’s preface in Yang-1. Hua did, however, have two disciples who may have maintained his lineage of practices. Wu Pu was noted for his mastery of therapeutic exercizes, while Fan A specialized in acupuncture, and was reputed to have used very deep needli
ng techniques, sometimes exceeding five inches, with excellent results. See Liaw (p. 33), Hoizey and Hoizey (p. 47) and Chuang (p. 29).
107 Cheng et. a., p. 14.
108 Chan, W.T. p. 305; partially translated by Wallacker.
109 Levenson and Schurmann, pps. 122-124; Liu, D.-1, pps. 221-23.
110 De Woskin, 1993 as interpreted by Flaws in the editor’s preface to Yang-1, p. xi.
111 Levenson and Schurmann, p. 127.
112 Liu, D.-1, p. 21.
113 Needham, p. 330; Maspero, pps. 536-537.
114 Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 41-42; Bensky et. al. pps. 3-4; Unschuld-1, p. 41; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 10-11.
115 ACTS, p. 352 cites the Shi Jing (Book of Odes) and Shan Ho Jing in this regard, the latter naming 120 drugs of vegetable, animal and mineral origin and describing their effects in treating and preventing diseases.
116 Lu-2, pps. 18-19.
117 Kaptchuk-1, p. 359; Hsu and Peacher, p. 41; Na, p. 2 claimed that this work was based on the lost four volume Commentary of Lei Kung, a contemporary of Qi Bo and Yu Fu.
118 Kaltenmark, p. 126.
119 Hsu and Peacher, p. 37.
120 Kaltenmark, p. 131.
121 Wong and Wu, p. 70. They note that during the Tang dynasty, approximately one third of the Chinese rulers died from alchemical experiments!
122 Zhang was himself a practicing Daoist as noted by Liu D.-1, p. 119.
123 See Zhang in the bibliography for English versions of these two works.
124 Chuang-2, p. 30.
125 ACTS, p. 342; Xie and Huang, p. 343.
126 Zhang-2, p. 3.
127 Lu-2, p. 37.
128 Zhang-1, p.3.
129 ibid, p. 71 from the commentary by Otsuka Keisetsu.
130 ibid, p. 89 from the commentary by Otsuka Keisetsu; Unschuld-3, pps. 108-110; Huang-fu, pps. xxiii - xxv.
131 Zhang-1, p. 89. Otsuka cites a text called Shang Han Lun Yi Chien Pien of unknown authorship which traced the origin of the Shang Han Lun to the Yi Jing.
132 Eckman-2.
133 Hsu and Peacher, p. 31.
134 Lu and Needham, pps. 100 and 119.
135 Matsumoto and Birch, p. 154.
136 Hsu and Peacher, p. 33.
137 ibid. p. 33; Chuang-2, pps. 30-31; Huang-fu, p. ix.
138 Lu and Needham, p. 119; Xie and Huang, p. 344.
139 Hsu and Peacher, p. 49.
140 Wong and Wu, p. 41. They cite the dictum in Huai-Nan Zi that doctors cannot cure their own complaints.
141 Lu and Needham, p. 129.
142 Liu and Liu, p. 201.
143 Prescriptions Left by the Ghost of Liu Juan-zi by Gong Qing-xuan, cited in Kaptchuk-1, p. 359.
144 Literally, Discussions on the Origins of Symptoms in Illness as cited in Kaptchuk-1, p. 359, this work is more commonly referred to by its patronymic title–see Chuang-2, p. 35.
145 Lu and Needham, p. 121.
146 ibid. p. 122.
147 ibid. p. 131; Hsu and Peacher, pp. 56-59. Two models were cast, one of which was lost in the Southern Sung dynasty and the other being in the National Museum in Tokyo where it can be seen only by special arrangement. Fig.78A is from a private viewing attended by the author.
148 Lu and Needham, p. 127.
149 Wang Tao was not however a physician, but had learned medicine from books, friends and practically in the course of nursing his sick mother. See Wong and Wu, p. 84.
150 ibid. p. 177; Chuang-2, p. 40.
151 Hsu and Peacher, p. 55.
152 Duke, pps. 32-33.
153 Ozaki, p. 37; Kaptchuk-1, p. 358.
154 Porkert, p. 56.
155 The Five Phases are primarily correlated with the Organs or Officials, while the Six Energies (Wind, Cold, Damp, Dry, Heat and Fire) are primarily correlated with the Meridians (the Six Levels of Yin and Yang), so phase energetics helped to develop a rationale for both the climatic etiology of illnesses and their treatment via acupuncture.
156 Porkert, pps. 56-59; Lu and Needham, pps. 139-140.
157 Kaptchuk-1, p. 361; Unschuld-1, pp. 175-177.
158 Also known as Liu Shou-zhen.
159 Unschuld-1, pps. 172-173; Liu and Liu, p. 202; Hsu and Peacher, p. 67; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 93-94.
160 Personal communication from Paul Lepron, M.D., 1992, a colleague and disciple of the late French acupuncturist Jacques Lavier. See also Kaptchuk-1, p. 362.
161 And also called Li Ming-zhi.
162 Yuan Qi, also known as Source Qi.
163 Unschuld-1, pp.s 177-179; Xie and Huang, p. 350; Kaptchuk-1, p. 362; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 71-73; Chuang-2, p. 45.
164 Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 95.
165 Also known as Zhang Zi-he.
166 Unschuld-1, pps. 174-175; Xie and Huang, p. 350; Hsu and Peacher, p. 69; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 96-97; Dale and Cheng, p. 95.
167 And also called Chu Yen-hsiu and Zhu Zhen-xiang.
168 “Princely” Fire (jun huo) relates mostly to the functions of the Heart and Small Intestine, while “Ministerial” Fire (xiang huo) relates mostly to the functioning of the Pericardium and Three Heater, although this term is also used to refer to “Fire” aspects of the functioning of any other Organs, e.g., Liver, Kidney and Gall bladder.
169 Unschuld-1, p. 198; Xie and Huang, p. 353; Kaptchuk-1, p. 362; Chuang-2, pp.s 49-50; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 75-77; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 97-98.
170 Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 94; Unschuld-3, pp. 102-104. Zhang Yuan-su was also known as Zhang Jie-gu (Xie and Huang, p. 349), and he was Li Gao’s principal teacher (Chuang, p. 45). He is credited with introducing the use of the twelve Jing-Well Points for the treatment of stroke, an advance that exemplifies his teaching that doctors must treat Oriental medicine as an evolving discipline, and that new disorders required new methods of treatment. He had a strong influence on the Four Great Schools, not only teaching Li Gao, but also personally curing Liu Wan-su of a stubborn case of typhoid fever. Another of his disciples, Wang Hao-gu (1200-1264) emphasized the fundamental role of the source or Yuan Points in acupuncture therapy, and the use of CV4 and CV6 to tonify spleen Yang (Dale and Cheng, pps. 96-97).
171 Kaptchuk-2, pps. xxxi and xxxv.
172 Cheng et. al., p. 116.
173 Lu and Needham, pps. 141, 148-149.
174 Also known as Dou Jie. He was a high ranking Official at the Imperial Court, as well as both a noted surgeon and acupuncturist (Liaw, p. 54). See also Dale and Cheng, pp. 96-97.
175 Lu and Needham, p. 137; Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 98; Chuang-2, pps. 546-547.
176 Jiang Yi-jun.
177 Ma Kan Wen, p. 98.
178 Lu and Needham, pps. 156-157.
179 Also known as Gao Mei-gu.
180 Chuang-2, pp. 56-57.
181 Matsumoto and Birch, p. 159; Chuang-2, p. 56.
182 Ma Ken-Wen, p. 98. Earlier Ming dynasty authors, such as Chen Hui (c. 14th to 15th c.) had proposed protocols for the needle techniques of tonification and sedation that used reversed laterality in treating males and females (Dale and Cheng, p. 99).
183 Xie and Huang, p. 355; Dale and Cheng, p. 102. Yi Xue Ru Men was translated into French by Soulié de Morant as Le Diagnostic par les Pouls radiaux, and published posthomously in 1983.
184 Also known as Zhang Jing-yue, Chang Hui-ching, Dong Yi-zi and Zhang Di-huang.
185 Liu, Y. p. 231.
186 Chuang-2, p. 60-61; Unschuld-1, pps. 199-200, 220-221; Bensky et. al., p. 11; Kaptchuk-1, p. 176; Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 114.
187 Lu and Needham, p. 159; Chuang-2, p. 57; Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 116; Xie and Huang, pps. 356-357; Dale and Cheng, p. 103.
188 Also known as Zhao Shu-xuan and Zhao Yi-ji.
189 Unschuld-1, pps. 211-212; Xie and Huang, p. 364; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 146-147.
190 Also known as Li Bin-hu and Li Dong-bi.
191 Hsu and Peacher, pps. 79-81; Kaptchuk-1, p. 363; Xie and Huang, p. 356; Chuang-2, pps. 54-55; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 120-127.
192 Qi Jing Ba Mai Gao and
Bin Hu Mai Xue.
193 Also known as Wang Sheng-zhi and Wang Shi-shan. See Xie and Huang, p. 354; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 115, 117; Dale and Cheng, p. 101.
194 Lu and Needham, pps. 149, 158; Chuang-2, pps. 55-56.
195 Also known as Zhao Yang-gui.
196 Xie and Huang, p. 358; Unschuld-1, pps. 200-202; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 113-114; Kaptchuk-1, p. 364.
197 Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 114 and 115.
198 Also known as Li Shi-cai.
199 Unschuld-1, pps. 202-203; Xie and Huang, p. 360.
200 Also known as Wu You-ke. See Xie and Huang, p. 359; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 84-87; Hoizey and Hoizey, pps. 118 - 119; Unschuld-1, pps. 205-206; Wong and Wu, p. 128.
201 Lu and Needham on p. 270 cite the work of the Dane Jacob de Bondt in that year as deserving priority.
202 Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 119.
203 The Four Divisions are Wei, Qi, Ying and Xue, or Defense Level, Energy Level, Nutritional Level and Blood Level. This theory parallels for heat diseases the Six Stages theory of the Shang Han Lun developed for cold diseases.
204 Also known as Ye Gui and Xiang-yan. See Xie and Huang, p. 361; Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 138; Hsu and Peacher, pps. 90-93. A charming anecdotal account of his career is given in Wong and Wu, pps. 149-150, including his final advice to his sons, “To be a practitioner one must be born with brains, read extensively, otherwise one will surely kill people.” I find this statement to be a healthy counterpoint to the oft-stated claim that acupuncture and Chinese medicine have no side effects, and are thus inherently superior to Western medicine with its iatrogenic (doctor-caused) diseases.
205 Also known as Wu Tang. See Xie and Huang, p. 365; Kaptchuk-1, p. 365; Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 140.
206 Flaws-1, p. 281.
207 Liu, Y., p. 231.
208 Sivin, p. 330.
209 ibid. p. 112.
210 ibid. p. 175.
211 Lu and Needham, p. 160.
212 Lok Yee-kung, personal communication, 1992.
213 Lu and Needham, p. 160.
214 Hoizey and Hoizey, p. 133.
215 Lu and Needham, p. 160; Ma, p. 98.
216 AOCA, p. 6; Chang-2, p. 16.
217 Crozier, p. 36.
218 Unschuld-1, p. 250.
219 AOCA, pps. 6-7; Wong and Wu, p. 161. The 1929 prohibition of Chinese medicine was vigorously opposed by its practitioners, who met on March 17 of that year to plan a protest. They formally appealed to Chairman Chiang Kai-Shek who reversed the prohibition. Since then, March 17 has been celebrated as Chinese medicine day, as related in Liaw, p. 73.
In the Footsteps of the Yellow Emperor Page 22