The City: A Global History (Modern Library Chronicles Series Book 21)

by Joel Kotkin

  26. Geoffrey Bolton, The Oxford History of Australia: The Middle Way, 1842–1968 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1990), 121–24.

  27. Mumford, The Urban Prospect, 236; Hartog, op. cit., 103.

  28. Richard Rogers and Richard Burdett, “Let’s Cram More into the City,” New Statesman, May 22, 2000.

  29. Patrick Collinson, “Property: A Slowdown Will Mean a Steadier Market,” The Guardian, October 28, 2000; “The Music of the Metropolis,” The Economist, August 2, 1997.

  30. Emrys Jones, “London,” in The Metropolis Era, vol. 2, The Megacities, ed. Mattei Dogan and John D. Kasarda (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1988), 105.

  31. Hartog, op. cit., 121.

  32. Henry Tricks, “Escape from the City,” The Financial Times, October 12, 2003.

  33. Pietro S. Nivola, Laws of the Landscape: How Politics Shape Cities in Europe and America (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1999), 27–28; Peter Marcuse and Ronald van Kempen, “Conclusion: A Changed Spatial Order,” in Globalizing Cities: A New Spatial Order?, ed. Peter Marcuse and Ronald van Kempen (London: Blackwell Publishers, 2000), 260.

  34. Manuel Valenzuela and Ana Olivera, “Madrid Capital City and Metropolitan Region,” in Europe’s Cities in the Late 20th Century, 57–59; Glebe, op. cit., 126–32.

  35. Jeffry M. Diefendorf, “The American Impact on Western Europe: Americanization and Westernization in Transatlantic Perspective,” Conference of the German Historical Institute, Washington, D.C., March 25–27, 1999.

  36. Hartog, op. cit., 110–16.

  37. “Discussion,” in The Study of Urban History, op. cit., 278.

  38. Eli Lehrer, “Crime Without Punishment,” Weekly Standard, May 27, 2002.

  39. Jan Rath, “A Game of Ethnic Musical Chairs? Immigrant Businesses and the Alleged Formation and Succession of Niches in the Amsterdam Economy,” in Sophie Body-Gendrot and Marco Martiniello, Minorities in European Cities: The Dynamics of Social Integration and Social Exclusion at the Neighborhood Level (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 2000); “E.U. Needs Foreign Workers but Resents Their Success,” The Hindu, August 3, 2001; “Crime and Politics,” Business Week, March 18, 2002.

  40. Research provided by Eduourd Bomhoff, Nyber, Netherlands; Jennifer Ehrlich, “Liberal Netherlands Becomes Less So on Immigration,” Christian Science Monitor, December 19, 2003; Phillip Rees, Evert van Imhoff, Helen Durham, Marek Kupiszewski, and Darren Smith, “Internal Migration and Regional Population Dynamics in Europe: Netherlands Case Study,” Council of Europe, August 1998.

  41. Jane Holtz Kay, “In Holland, the Pressures of American Style Urban Sprawl,” Christian Science Monitor, October 3, 2002.

  42. Christian Kestletoot, “Brussels: Post Fordist Polarization in a Fordist Spatial Canvas,” in Globalizing Cities, op. cit., 186–210.

  43. Martine Berger, “Trajectories in Living Space, Employment and Housing Stock: The Example of the Parisian Metropolis in the 1980s and 1990s” International Journal for Urban and Regional Research 20.2 (1996), 240–54; Fierro, op. cit., 19; Jean Robert, “Paris and the Ile de France: National Capital, World City,” in Europe’s Cities in the Late 20th Century, 17–22.

  44. Andre Sorensen, “Subcentres and Satellite Cities: Tokyo’s 20th Century Experience of Planned Polycentrism,” International Planning Studies 6, no. 1 (September 2001); Mosk, op. cit., 263–64.

  45. Edward Seidensticker, Tokyo Rising: The City Since the Great Earthquake (New York: Knopf, 1990), 290–303.

  46. Carola Hein, op. cit., 309–42.

  47. Sorensen, op. cit.; Hill and Fujita, op. cit., 11; Seidensticker, op. cit., 336–37.

  CHAPTER SIXTEEN: THE POSTCOLONIAL DILEMMA

  1. “Urban Agglomerations 2003,” United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.

  2. Carlos Fuentes, Where the Air Is Clear, trans. Sam Hileman (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971), 7.

  3. Kamen, op. cit., 13; Chandler and Fox, op. cit., 15.

  4. Litvinoff, op. cit., 5, 11.

  5. Valliant, op. cit., 127, 138.

  6. Díaz, op. cit, 215–19.

  7. From Nahuatl codices, composed circa 1523–1528, cited in Fehrenbach, op. cit., 146.

  8. Hardoy, op. cit., 21; Fehrenbach, op. cit., 189; Wright, op. cit., 199–200.

  9. Díaz, op. cit., 200; Valliant, op. cit., 172, 257; W. W. Collins, Cathedral Cities of Spain (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1909), 19.

  10. Hardoy, op. cit., 22–25; Fehrenbach, op. cit., 147, 159; Kamen, op. cit., 95; Mark D. Szuchman, “The City as Vision—The Development of Urban Culture in Latin America,” in I Saw a City Invincible: Urban Portraits of Latin America, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph and Mark D. Szuchman (Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 1996), 5.

  11. Hardoy, op. cit., 46–53; Lesley Byrd Simpson, Many Mexicos (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 362–63; “Cities: A Survey,” The Economist, July 19, 1995; Alejandro Portes, “Urban Latin America: The Political Condition from Above and Below,” in Third World Urbanization, ed. Janet Abu-Lughod and Richard Hay, Jr. (Chicago: Maaroufa Press, 1977), 67–69.

  12. “Regions at Risk: Comparisons of Threatened Environments,” ed. Jeanne X. Kasperson, Roger E. Kasperson, and B. L. Turner II (New York: United Nations University Press, 1995); Jonathan Kandell, “Mexico’s Megalopolis,” in I Saw a City Invincible, 189; Josef Gugler, “Overurbanization Reconsidered,” in Cities in the Developing World: Issues, Theory and Policy, ed. Josef Gugler (London: Oxford University Press, 1977), 120.

  13. Procuraduría General de la República, Inciodencia Delictiva del Fuero Federal, www.pgr.gob.mx; The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2003, 166.

  14. Fuentes, op. cit., 4.

  15. “The State of the World’s Population, 1996,” United Nations Population Fund.

  16. Richard Hay, Jr., “Patterns of Urbanization and Socio-Economic Development,” in Third World Urbanization, 71. “The State of the World’s Population, 1996”; “The State of the World’s Population, 2001,” United Nations Population Fund.

  17. Alan Gilbert and Josef Gugler, Cities, Poverty and Development: Urbanization in the Third World (London: Oxford University Press, 1991), 13; Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979), 153.

  18. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 151; Murphey, op. cit., 65.

  19. Curtin, op. cit., 170–78; Murphey, op. cit., 55; July, op. cit., 57–60, 275–76, 347–48; Curtin, op. cit., 212.

  20. Kumar, op. cit., 492–93.

  21. Girouard, op. cit., 238–42; Raychaudhuri and Habib, op. cit., 437–39; Parry, op. cit., 272–74; Rhoads Murphey, “The History of the City in Monsoon Asia,” in The Urban Transformation of the Developing World, ed. Josef Gugler (London: Oxford University Press, 1996), 23.

  22. Hourani, op. cit., 295–98, 439–42; Raymond, op. cit., 210; Janet Abu-Lughod, “Urbanization in the Arab World and the International System,” in The Urban Transformation of the Developing World, 25.

  23. Bianca, op. cit., 170–71; Raymond, op. cit., 318; Abu-Lughod, Cairo, 98–99.

  24. Mattei Dogan and John Kasarda, “Introduction: Comparing Giant Cities,” in The Metropolis Era, vol. 2, Megacities, 23.

  25. Alfred Crofts and Percy Buchanan, A History of the Far East (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1958), 142–52; Schinz, op. cit., 18; Xiangming Chen, “Giant Cities and the Urban Hierarchy of China,” in Mattei Dogan and John Kasarda, A World of Giant Cities: The Metropolis Era, vol. 1 (Newbury Park: Sage, 1989), 230–32.

  26. Murphey, “The City as a Centre of Change,” 55–61; Stella Dong, Shanghai: The Rise and Fall of a Decadent City (New York: William Morrow, 2000), 1.

  27. Abu-Lughod, “Urbanization in the Arab World,” 190.

  28. “The State of the World’s Population, 1996”; Alain R. A. Jacquemin, Urban Development and New Towns in the Third World: Lessons from the New Bombay Experience(Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate, 1999), 5.

  29. Robert B. Potter, “Cities, Convergence, Divergence an
d Third World Development,” in Cities and Development in the Third World, ed. Robert B. Potter and Ademola T. Salau (London: Mansell, 1990), 1–2.

  30. Janice E. Perlman, The Myth of Marginality: Urban Poverty and Politics in Rio de Janeiro (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 12; John Vidal, “Disease Stalks New Megacities,” The Guardian, March 23, 2002; “State of the World Population, 1996”; “Air Pollution for 40 Selected World Cities,” World Health Organization; Jorge E. Hardoy, “Building and Managing Cities in a State of Permanent Crisis,” Wilson Center, Latin America Program, no. 187, 16; Kalpana Sharma, “Governing Our Cities: Will People Power Work,” Panos Institute, London, 2000.

  31. David Drakakis-Smith, The Third World City (New York: Methuen, 1987), 8, 38; Michael F. Lofchie, “The Rise and Demise of Urban Based Development Policies in Africa,” in Cities in the Developing World, 23; Ronald McGill, InstitutionalDevelopment: A Third World City Management Perspective (London: I. B. Tauris & Co., 1996), 21; Gilbert and Gugler, op. cit., 25.

  32. John M. Shandra, Bruce London, and John B. Williamson, “Environmental Degradation, Environmental Sustainability and Overurbanization in the Developing World,” Sociological Perspectives 46, no. 3, 309–29; Aprodicio A. Laquian, “The Asian City and the Political Process,” in The City as a Centre of Change in Asia, ed. D. J. Dwyer (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1972), 50.

  33. Gilbert and Gugler, op. cit., 85; Allen C. Kelley and Jeffrey G. Williamson, What Drives Third World City Growth?: A Dynamic General Equilibrium Approach (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), 5.

  34. Rollie E. Poppino, Brazil: The Land and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 113–17; “World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision,” United Nations Population Division; “A World of Cities,” The Economist, July 29, 1995.

  35. “State of the World’s Population, 2001.”

  36. S. I. Abumere, “Nigeria,” in Urbanization in Africa: A Handbook, ed. James D. Tarver (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994), 262–77; Pauline H. Baker, Urbanization and Political Change: The Politics of Lagos, 1917–1967 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 32–34.

  37. Drakakis-Smith, op. cit., 8, 38; Lofchie, op. cit., 23; McGill, op. cit., 21; Gilbert and Gugler, op. cit., 25; Alan Mabin, “Suburbs and Segregation in the Urbanizing Cities of the South: A Challenge for Metropolitan Government in the Early 21st Century,” Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2001; “Black Flight,” The Economist, February 24, 1996.

  38. Lewis, What Went Wrong?, 34; Ali Madanipour, Tehran: The Making of a Metropolis(New York: John Wiley, 1998), 5, 9.

  39. Hourani, op. cit., 373–74; Abu-Lughod, “Urbanization in the Arab World,” 189; Salah S. El-Shakhs and Hooshang Amirahmadi, “Population Dynamics, Urbanization, and the Planning of Large Cities in the Arab World,” in Urban Development in the Muslim World, ed. Salah S. El-Shakhs and Hooshang Amirahmadi (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 21–23; Hooshang Amirahmadi and Ali Kiafar, “The Transformation of Tehran from Garrison Town to a Primate City: A Tale of Rapid Growth and Uneven Development,” in Urban Development in the Muslim World, 120–21.

  40. Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Vol. 3: End of Millennium (Oxford, Eng.: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), 78–83; John D. Kasarda and Allan M. Parnell, “Introduction: Third World Urban Development Issues,” in Third World Cities: Problems, Policies and Prospects, ed. John D. Kasarda and Allan M. Parnell (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1993), xi.

  41. Grey E. Burkhart and Susan Older, The Information Revolution in the Middle East and North Africa, report prepared for the National Intelligence Council (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2003), ix, 2, 53.

  42. Bianca, op. cit., 170–71; Raymond, op. cit., 318; Abu-Lughod, Cairo, 98–99.

  43. El-Shakhs and Amirahmadi, op. cit., 234; Burdett, “Toward the 21st Century”; Hourani, op. cit., 374; Jonathan Eric Lewis, “Iraq’s Christians,” The Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2002; Rachel Pomerance, “Iraq’s Glorious Past,” Jewish Telegraphic Service, February 9, 2003; Amir Taheri, “Saddam Hussein’s Delusion,” The New York Times, November 14, 2002.

  44. Hourani, op. cit., 438; El-Shakhs and Amirahmadi, op. cit., 240; Jacquemin, op. cit., 35.

  45. Madanipour, op. cit., 21, 95.

  46. Burdett, “Toward the 21st Century”; Amirahmadi and Kiafar, op. cit., 130–31; Masoud Kheirabadi, Iranian Cities: Formation and Development (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991), 60; Madanipour, op. cit., 23; Masserat Amir-Ebrahimi, “L’image socio-géographique de Téhéran en 1986,” in Téhéran: Capitale Bicentenaire, ed. Chahryar Adle and Bernard Hourcade (Paris: Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, 1992), 268.

  CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: “QUEENS OF THE FURTHER EAST”

  1. “State of the World’s Population, 2001.”

  2. C. M. Turnbull, A History of Singapore: 1819–1875 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1977), 1–45.

  3. Sharma, “Governing Our Cities”; Donald N. Wilber, Pakistan: Its People, Its Society and Its Culture (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1980), 373; Anthony King, Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976), 273; Kumar, op. cit., 520.

  4. Nigel Harris, City, Class, and Trade: Social and Economic Change in the Third World (London: I. B. Tauris & Co., 1991), 30; Barnett E. Rubin, “Journey to the East: Industrialization in India and the Chinese Experience,” in Social and Economic Development in India: A Reassessment, ed. Dilip K. Basu and Richard Sisson (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1986), 69.

  5. “Plenty of Space, Few Takers,” Businessline, May 24, 1999; Jacquemin, op. cit., 275–77.

  6. Sharma, “Governing Our Cities”; “Orillion India Thriving in Hyderabad,” Orillion Source, August 2000; Isher Judge Ahluwalia, Industrial Growth in India: Stagnation Since the Mid-Sixties (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985), 161–87.

  7. Ali Sharaf and Leslie Green, “Calcutta,” in Great Cities of the World: Their Government,Politics, and Planning, ed. William A. Robson and D. E. Regan (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1972), 299; Tim McDonald, “U.S. Tech Bust a Boon for Asia,” NewsFactor Network, June 7, 2001; Arvind Singhal and Everett M. Rogers, India’s Information Revolution (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1989), 163–65.

  8. Kyle Eischen, “India’s High-Tech Marvel Makes Abstract Real,” San Jose Mercury News, March 19, 2000; Joanna Slater, “Influx of Tech Jobs Ushers in Malls, Modernity to Calcutta,” The Wall Street Journal, April 28, 2004.

  9. Castells, op. cit., 151–55; Amy Waldman, “Low-Tech or High, Jobs Are Scarce in India’s Boom,” The New York Times, May 6, 2004.

  10. Peter John Marcotullio, “Globalisation, Urban Form and Environmental Conditions in Asia-Pacific Cities,” Urban Studies 40, no. 2 (2003).

  11. Joochul Kim and Sang-Chuel Choe, Seoul: The Making of a Metropolis (West Sussex, Eng.: John Wiley, 1997), 3, 8–11.

  12. Jacquemin, op. cit., 35; A.S. Oberoi, Population Growth, Employment and Poverty in Third-World Mega-Cities: Analytical and Policy Issues (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 11; Kim and Choe, op. cit., 11–12, 26–29, 191–92.

  13. Hardoy, “Building and Managing Cities in a State of Permanent Crisis,” 21.

  14. El-Shakhs and Amirahmadi, op. cit., 240; Jacquemin, op. cit., 35.

  15. Richard Child Hill and June Woo Kim, “Global Cities and Development States: New York, Tokyo and Seoul,” Urban Studies 37, no. 12 (2000).

  16. John Rennie Short and Yeong-Hyun Kim, Globalization and the City (London: Longman, 1999), 26, 57.

  17. Barbara Demick, “South Korea Proposes a Capital Change,” Los Angeles Times, July 9, 2004.

  18. Gerald Segal, The Fate of Hong Kong (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 1–27; Roy Hofheinz, Jr. and Kent E. Calder, The EastAsia Edge (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 103.

  19. Turnbull, op. cit., 1–45; Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora (Boston: Li
ttle, Brown, 1990), 110.

  20. Janet W. Salaff, State and Family in Singapore: Restructuring a Developing Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988), 3, 226–27; Lim Chong-Yah, “The Transformation of Singapore in Twenty-five Years: A Glimpse,” in Singapore:Twenty-five Years of Development, ed. You Poh Seng and Lim Chong Yah (Singapore: Nan Yang Xing Zhou Lianhe Zaobao, 1984), 6–7; Giok-Ling Ooi, “The Role of the State in Nature Conservation in Singapore,” Society and NaturalResources 15 (2002): 445–60.

  21. T.J.S. George, Lee Kuan Yew’s Singapore (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 1984), 109.

  22. Pan, op. cit., 264–65; George, op. cit., 16.

  23. George, op. cit., 16, 109.

  24. Ibid., 28; David S. G. Goodman, Deng Xiaoping and the Chinese Revolution: A Political Biography (London: Routledge, 1994), 120; Hoiman Chan and Rance P. L. Lee, “Hong Kong Families: At the Crossroads of Modernism and Traditionalism,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies (Spring 1995); Marcotullio, “Globalisation”; Castells, op. cit., 292; Weiming Tu, “Beyond Enlightenment Mentality: A Confucian Perspective on Ethics, Migration and Global Stewardship,” International Migration Review (Spring 1996).

  25. Rhoads Murphey, “The City as a Centre of Change: Western Europe and China,” in D. J. Dwyer, ed., The City in the Third World (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1974), 62–63.

  26. Gilbert and Gugler, op cit., 187; Weiming Tu, “Beyond Enlightenment Mentality”; Yue-Man Yeung, “Great Cities of Eastern Asia,” in The Metropolis Era, vol. 1, A World of Giant Cities, 158; Martin King Whyte, “Social Control and Rehabilitation in Urban China,” Third World Urbanization, 264–70; Sidney Goldstein, “Levels of Urbanization in China,” in The Metropolis Era: vol. 1, A World of Giant Cities, 200–221; Chen, op. cit., 230–32; Deborah Davis, “Social Transformation of Metropolitan China Since 1949,” in Cities in the Developing World, 247–52.

  27. James Kynge, “An Industrial Powerhouse Emerges by the Waterfront,” FinancialTimes, January 23, 2003.