motherhood: employment impacts on, 44; expectations in intergenerational relationships, 40, 46, 58; ideologies of, 15, 34–35, 37–38, 41–44, 47–52, 57–58, 71, 192–93; migrating impact on ideals of, 27, 38–40, 41, 44–47, 51, 58; myths of, 43; religion and ethnicity influence on ideals of, 45, 47–48, 49; sacrifice and ideals of, 35, 40, 44, 49, 57, 192–93; social nature and construction of, 43–46; societal differences in, 44
Mother’s Day, Mexico, 112–13
myth, 42–43
“mythemes,” 42–43
nannies (NYC), 1, 23, 26, 208, 210
Napolitano, Valentina, 48
nation-states, 8, 190
network sampling, 24
New Jersey, 26
New York City (NYC), 1; children in Mexico perceptions of, 104–8, 109, 115–17, 194; education system values in Mexico compared to, 87–88, 161; Mexican immigrant academic and economic status in, 17–18, 134–35; Mexican immigration past and present in, 6–8, 215; migrant mother birth process in, 122–24; migrant mothers school-related involvement in Mexico compared to, 75, 77, 90, 212; opportunities/experiences impacted by location within, 130, 133, 155, 194–95; parent-teacher conferences in Mexico contrasted with, 77–88, 90–91; population statistics for immigrants in, 7, 150, 215; poverty rates in, 215; research demographics for, 215; research sites and participants in, 7, 23–27, 26, 30–31, 59, 150, 208–10, 215, 217–20; reunification for family in, 159–61, 199–201; school/education expectations for children in, 165–70, 184–85; school/education experience in Mexico compared with, 4, 6, 27–28, 132–33, 137–38, 146, 150–56, 161, 190; school/education values in Mexico compared to, 87–88, 161; school/education variances in Mexico compared to, 146, 156, 194–95; schooling in, 150–55; social services and assistance in, 24, 150–51, 155, 157; violence/crime for migrant families in, 78–79, 106, 141, 153, 195. See also specific neighborhoods
1986 Act, 33, 221n1
NYC. See New York City
Oaxaca, Mexico, 26
Obama administration, 9, 129, 196
occupation. See employment
OECD: on academic performance by gender in Mexico, 164–65; on pre-primary education rate in Mexico, 146
opportunities, 185, 220; children (in Mexico and NYC) perspective of, 99, 167, 171; location/neighborhood in NYC impacting, 130, 133, 155, 194–95; as migrating factor, 11, 50, 52, 57, 99–100, 160, 166, 195; for siblings (separated) comparison, 5–6, 27–28, 132–33, 137, 146–55, 194–95
Pareñas, Rhacel Salazar, 18–19, 26, 41, 44, 137
parent-teacher conferences: conflict and distrust at, 81–82, 91; language barriers in, 77–78, 79, 85, 193; in NYC contrasted to Mexico, 77–88, 90–91
participants. See research methods and sites/participants
paternal migration: maternal migration impact compared with, 45, 148–49; trend of, 163
Philippines. See Filipinos
population statistics: for children (US-born), 133; for Mexican immigration since 1980s, 134; for NYC research sites, 7, 150, 215
postmodernism, 13, 22
poverty, 150, 195; Mexican immigrant children in, 17–18, 134; modernization impact on, 11; rates in NYC, 215. See also socioeconomic status
pregnancy, 174–75, 185. See also birthing process
Puebla, Mexico, 22–23, 85, 187; academic performance by gender in, 163–65; gender roles in, 163–65, 175–76; migration from, 141, 150, 163, 213; participants from and in, 13, 25, 33–36, 59, 68, 94, 141, 168–71, 198–200, 208, 209, 210; remittance statistics for, 76; research scope and surveys in, 25, 29, 33, 117, 163, 217–18
Queens, New York: immigrant population in, 7; income level for immigrants in, 195; research demographics for, 215; research sites and participants in, 23, 209, 210, 217; reunification for family in, 159–61, 199–201
quinceñera, 201
racial prejudice/conflict, 51, 78; children in NYC (US-born and brought over) experience with, 153–54; in immigration policy, 8; in South Bronx, 79, 106, 195
RDS. See respondent-driven sampling
Redfield, Robert, 11
refugee status, 6, 222n1
religion, 45, 47–48, 49
remittances and gifts, 31–32, 49, 181; academic performance ties to, 29, 136, 138, 145, 165, 166, 179–82; caregiver expectations for, 64, 66–67, 145–46; children targeted because of, 72; consistency over amount for, 145; economic inequalities with, 16, 136–37; from fathers deported, 197; gender differences with, 180–82; prioritizing, 160; for school/education, 76, 80, 126, 127, 132, 136, 138, 142–43; statistics (2010) of, 136
research methods and sites/participants, 222n2; details and demographics for, 208–10, 215, 217–20; flexibility with, 29, 220; ICT in, 219; inspiration for, 21–22, 218–19; in Mexico, 22–27, 26, 117, 158–59, 208–10, 217–20; in NYC, 7, 23–27, 26, 30–31, 59, 150, 208–10, 215, 217–20; sampling techniques for, 24, 26–27
respondent-driven sampling (RDS), 24
reunification: academic performance factor in, 28–29, 165; for family in NYC, 159–61, 199–201; obstacles to, 70, 201; of siblings, 118–19, 159–61
revolution, 187
Rosaldo, Renato, 8–9
Rouse, Roger, 111
sacrifice, 188; of caregivers, 39, 178–79; guilt relationship with, 49, 58; migrating factors and sense of, 101–4, 168, 192–93; motherhood ideals of, 35, 40, 44, 49, 57, 192–93
sampling techniques, 24, 26–27
Scheper-Hughes, N., 43
Schmalzbauer, L., 13, 191
school/education (cross-border or general): biological mother expected as provider of, 3–4, 14, 27, 37, 41, 44–45, 71, 74–78, 85–86, 91, 127–28; biological mother involvement/enforcement of, 68–79, 83–85, 90, 140–41, 154, 158, 168–69, 193, 195, 198–99, 201, 212, 218; factors for measuring performance in, 162, 163; fathers involvement in, 76, 78; gender role in expectations for, 4, 6, 28–29, 165–75, 177–78, 181–82, 185–86, 195, 199; ICT influence for, 27–28, 74, 88–90, 91; as migrating factor, 5, 70–71, 72–73, 75, 127, 166, 168, 170; percentiles, 222n2; siblings (separated) comparisons in, 4–6, 23, 27–28, 132–33, 137–38, 190; socioeconomic status relationship to, 17, 149–50; stability of mother impact on, 132–33, 140–41, 146, 155–56, 190
school/education (Mexico): caregivers decisions/involvement in, 69, 73, 74, 76–77, 79–80, 83–86, 91, 147, 149–50, 171, 184–85, 193, 198–99, 221n1; children left behind difficulties with, 16, 68–72, 80, 83–84, 147–48; children left behind experience with, 4, 6, 27–28, 68–72, 88, 132–33, 135–38, 146, 147–48, 155–56, 161, 190; children left behind stat. with, 26; children left behind success with, 126, 127–29, 182–84; divisions/grades in, 222n1; drop-out rate in, 26, 173, 174; enrollment and graduation rates, 146–47, 164–65; expectations for children left behind, 165–70, 184–86, 187–88; gender roles and performance in, 162–65, 173, 182, 196; gender stigmatization on, 178; remittances and gifts for, 76, 80, 126, 127, 132, 136, 142–43; remittances and gifts tied to performance in, 29, 136, 138, 145, 165, 166, 179–82; reunification ties to performance in, 28–29, 165; safety concerns with, 71–72; values in Mexico compared to, 87–88, 161; variances in NYC compared to, 146, 156, 194–95
school/education (NYC): bilingualism and cultural traditions in, 140; children (US-born) difficulties with, 81–83, 87, 158; children (US-born and brought over) experience with, 4–6, 18, 23, 27–28, 36–37, 132–35, 137–38, 146, 150–55, 157–58, 160–61, 190, 195, 200; children (US-born) success with, 157–58; expectations for children (US-born and brought over) in, 165–70, 184–85; language barriers for parents involvement in, 77–78, 79, 84–85, 87, 140–41, 154, 158, 168, 198–99; legal status as obstacle for involvement with, 73, 78, 85, 87; Mexican immigrants performance in, 17–18, 134–35; values in Mexico compared to, 87–88, 161; variances in Mexico compared to, 146, 156, 194–95; visas for, 222n1
Semple, Kirk, 134
sexual harassment, 61–62
sex workers, 221n1
Shih, S., 101
siblings, separated: age difference significance for, 138; belonging contrast for, 98–99, 112–14, 118–20, 121; children (US-born) ignorant of, 37, 38; ICT significance for, 28, 89, 115–17, 121; inequality perceptions and experience for, 28, 98–99, 103–7, 109–11, 120–21, 194; opportunities comparison for, 5–6, 27–28, 132–33, 137, 146–55, 194–95; physical resemblance significance for, 37, 194; relationships for, 5, 37, 67, 118–20, 194; research methods for, 23; reunification of, 118–19, 159–61; scholarship on, 193–94; school/education experience comparisons for, 4–6, 23, 27–28, 125–33, 137–38, 190; stability of mother impact on, 128, 131–33, 137–38, 141–43, 155–56, 194
Simpson-Rodino Act, 14
Smith, Robert C., 13, 136–37, 178
snowball sampling, 24, 26
So, How’s the Family? (Hochschild), 45
social life: for children in NYC (US-born), 28; for children left behind, 28, 88; at Herbalife offices, 30–31; for women in Mexico, 31
social opportunities. See opportunities
social services (NYC), 24, 150–51, 155, 157. See also welfare system
society: biological mother value in, 17, 52; motherhood differences in, 44; transnational care constellations redefining, 190
socioeconomic status: children on both sides views on, 28, 104–7, 109–11; education relationship to, 17, 149–50; of Mexican immigrants, 17–18, 134–35; of mixed-status families, 133
South Bronx, New York: housing in, 78–79, 139–40, 195; immigrant population in, 7; racial prejudice/conflict in, 79, 106, 195; research demographics for, 215; research sites and participants in, 23, 24, 30–31, 59, 208, 209, 210, 217; school/education experiences in, 133, 151–55; violence in, 106, 141
South West Bronx, New York. See South Bronx, New York
stability, 195; caregivers impacted by mother’s, 141–42, 145–46; employment, 141–43; home space, 139–41; for move back to Mexico, 135; partnership/marriage, 143–46, 171; school/education success tied to mother’s, 132–33, 140–41, 146, 155–56, 190; siblings (separated) impacted by mother’s, 128, 131–33, 137–38, 141–43, 155–56, 194
Staten Island, New York, 215
Sunset Park, New York: Hispanic population in, 7, 150; housing in, 139–40, 141; income levels for immigrants in, 195; research sites and participants in, 23, 24, 208, 209, 210, 217; school/education experiences in, 150–55, 195; social and welfare services in, 155, 195
Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (Goodwin), 41
technology. See Internet and Communication Technologies
Tlaxcala, Mexico, 22, 125, 129, 214
transnational body, 101
transnational care constellations, 9; belonging impacted by, 98–99; biological mothers role in, 3–4, 20–21, 21; for caregivers, 3–4, 10, 20–21, 21, 26, 52–57; for children in NYC (US-born and brought over), 20–21, 21, 26; for children left behind, 2–4, 15, 20–21, 21, 26, 148–49; defined, 18–20, 45; deportation impact on, 198; emotional toll on, 70; family redefined in, 190; globalization and, 5; ICT significance for, 88–90, 115–17; labor and task sharing within, 72–74; members and details of researched, 208–10; paternal compared to maternal grandparents in, 53; responsibilities and negotiations in, 52–57; significance of, 13, 40, 189; social aspects of, 28; as virtual village, 189. See also specific topics
transnationalism: anthropology of, 10–13; defined, 12–13; developments in study of, 8–9, 12–13
transnational mothering. See migrant mothers and transnational mothering
Trump, Donald, 196–97
trust: children in NYC experiencing lack of, 152, 153; migrant mothers lack of, 152, 195; in mother-child left behind relationship, 175, 180; parent-teacher conferences and lack of, 81–82, 91; in research process, 25–26
tutors, 139–41, 154, 195
UNICEF, 17, 131, 182
Union Settlement (East Harlem), 24
United States (U.S.): school systems in Mexico compared with, 211–12; school values in Mexico compared with, 87–88, 161. See also children, US-born; New York City
Universidad Iberoamerican (Puebla), 25
U.S. See United States
Varenne, Hervé, 221n3
Vera Cruz, Mexico, 112, 116; migration from, 214; research sites and participants from, 22, 158–59, 208, 209; school/education experience in, 68–72
violence/crime: children in NYC perceptions of Mexico, 106; for children left behind, 71–72, 79–80; for migrant families in NYC, 78–79, 106, 141, 153, 195. See also abuse; racial prejudice/conflict
Virgin of Guadalupe, 47, 49
visas, 172, 222n1
welfare system, 154–55, 195
Western Astoria, New York. See Queens, New York
women: education impact on, 185–86; Herbalife as social place for, 30–31; Mexican immigrant, 14–15, 213–14; motherhood contrasted with role as, 57–58; social sites for, 30–31; victimization of immigrant, 221n1. See also gender
Zacatecas, Mexico, 17, 214
Zúñiga, V., 13, 90
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Gabrielle Oliveira is Assistant Professor at the Lynch School of Education at Boston College. She has also taught at Saint John’s University, CUNY in New York City and has worked as a Lecturer in the Department of International and Transcultural Studies at Teachers College, Columbia University in New York City. She is originally from São Paulo, Brazil. She received her PhD from Teachers College, Columbia University in Applied Anthropology. She also holds a Masters in International Affairs from Columbia University with a focus in Latin American Studies. Gabrielle Oliveira’s research and dissertation have focused on female Mexican migration to the United States, with a specific focus on transnational motherhood, separated siblings, childhood, and education. She was a National Academy of Education/Spencer Foundation Dissertation Fellow. After completing her PhD work, Oliveira was a Post-doc Fellow with the University of Wisconsin’s School of Education, working on a research project on immigrant Dominican youth in New York City.
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