children brought over: age range for, 26, 138; deportation fear for, 129–30; immigration policy for, 129–30; migrating factors narrative for, 99–100, 101–3; mothers relationship with, 55–56, 126, 128, 200–201; participant details for, 208–10; population statistics for, 133; racial prejudice experienced by, 153–54; research methods and duration with, 23, 217–19; school/education experience for, 4–6, 18, 23, 27–28, 132–35, 137–38, 146, 150–55, 160–61, 190, 200; social life for, 28; transnational care constellation for, 20–21, 21, 26. See also siblings, separated
children left behind: abandonment conflict/debate with, 16–17, 33, 39, 46–47, 57, 112, 131, 155, 158; academic performance by gender for, 162–65, 173, 182, 196; age range for, 26, 51–52, 138; belonging and kinship importance for, 120; border crossings for, 159; caregiver relationship with, 65–67, 149–50, 169, 177, 178–79; depression for, 16, 84, 137; emotional/behavioral issues for, 16, 84, 137, 148, 158, 166, 172, 178, 183; factors/scenarios for deciding on, 34–35; family drawings by, 92, 94, 94, 96, 96–97, 97, 218–19; gender expectations for, 175–79, 181–82, 185–86, 195; grandmother in Mexico deception and control of, 65–67; guilt of mothers for, 3, 40, 45, 47, 56, 63, 128, 142; housing and home environment for, 147; ICT reliance for transnational mothering of, 18–19, 45, 74, 88–90, 191–92; media portrayals of, 131; memory loss for infant, 35, 54–55; migrating factors narrative for, 99–100, 101–3, 107, 113, 183; migration aspirations for, 149, 162–63, 172–73; migration plans kept from, 52–53; motherhood ideals conflict around, 38–40, 46–47; NYC perceptions for, 109–11, 115–18, 194; participant details for, 208–10; paternal compared with maternal migration impact on, 45, 148–49; prioritizing, 14, 142, 160; research methods and duration with, 23, 217–18; resentment from, 111–12; reunification hopes for, 28–29, 165; reunification in NYC for, 159–61, 199–201; school/education difficulties for, 16, 68–72, 80, 83–84, 147–48; school/education expectations for, 165–70, 171–75, 177–78, 181–82, 184–88; school/education experience for, 4, 6, 27–28, 68–72, 88, 132–33, 135–38, 146, 147–48, 155–56, 161, 190; school/education focus and success for, 126, 127–29, 182–84; school/education remittances for, 76, 80, 126, 127, 132, 136, 142–43; school/education status for, 26; school-related decisions significance for mother of, 68–77, 193; siblings (US-born) ignorant of, 37, 38; social life for, 28, 88; statistics of, 8, 14; transnational care constellation for, 2–4, 10, 15, 20–21, 21, 26, 148–49; trust in relationship with mother for, 175, 180; UNICEF report on, 131, 182; violence and danger for, 71–72, 79–80. See also remittances and gifts; siblings, separated
citizenship: juridical definition of, 9; Mexican immigrants obstacles to, 6–7; under 1986 Act, 33, 221n1; transnational care constellations redefining, 190
college enrollment, 17, 134
communication technology. See Internet and Communication Technologies
constellations. See transnational care constellations
consumerism, 106, 109, 168
crime. See violence/crime
criminalization, 9, 159
crossings, undocumented: arrests with, 159; for children left behind, 159; fear with, 55; hardship and cost of, 1–2, 63–64, 159, 170; planning for, 62–63; sexual relationship arrangement for, 62–64
data collection: analysis and coding after, 219–20; types, 25
dejada, 34, 54
deportation: children brought over fear of, 129–30; hospital stays and fear of, 122–24; mixed-status families fear of, 7, 152–53, 197–98; school-related involvement and fear of, 73, 78, 85, 87
depression, 16, 84, 137
discipline, 48–49, 76–77, 158
drawings, family: by children (US-born), 92–93, 93; by children left behind, 92, 94, 94, 96, 96–97, 97, 218–19; as narrative tools, 218–19
Dreby, Joana, 13, 19, 26, 136, 149, 178; on citizenship obstacles, 6; on criminalization of Mexican immigrants, 9; on deportation impacts, 197
drugs, 115, 139, 221n2
East Harlem, New York, 23, 24, 208, 209, 217
economic inequality. See inequalities
economic opportunity. See opportunities
education. See school/education
email. See Internet and Communication Technologies
emotional/behavioral issues, 55, 70; for children left behind, 16, 84, 137, 148, 158, 166, 172, 178, 183; gender differences in, 166; mothers role in supporting, 76; with parental migration, 16, 35, 63; school/education as diversion from, 165. See also guilt
employment: with Herbalife, 30–31, 151, 208; legal status and accountability with, 15; for migrant mothers, 26, 37, 126–27, 151, 155, 157, 208–10; as migrating factor, 99–100; motherhood differences with, 44; stability, 141–43
engagement level, 23, 208–10
English language. See language barriers
ethnographic scholarship/research: on gender, 14, 42; immigration policy informed by, 199; Marcus on, 21–22; migration studies impact on, 11–12; motherhood in, 43; multi-sited, 12, 21–22, 26–27; patterns over time with, 156; on siblings separated by migration, 193–94; tradition and leaders in transnational, 13, 26–27. See also research methods and sites/participants
Europe, 133
Everyday Illegal: When Policies Undermine Immigrant Families (Dreby), 9, 197
Facebook. See Internet and Communication Technologies
family: defined, 45–46; drawings, 92, 92–97, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 218–19; immigration policy, 14; migration challenging concept of, 45–46; transnational care constellations redefining, 190
fathers: caregivers from mother’s side compared to, 53; remittances and gifts from deported, 197; research methods and duration for, 23; resentment of migrating mothers over, 111–12; school/education involvement for, 76, 78. See also paternal migration
feminist theory: on care chains, 42; on family, 46; on motherhood myths, 43
Filipinos, 15, 26, 41, 45, 71, 136
“folk-urban continuum,” 11
Gálvez, Alyshia, 9, 26–27
Garcia, O., 152
gender: in academic performance in Mexico, 162–65, 173, 182, 196; caregiver expectations based on, 170, 177–78, 185, 196; children left behind and role of, 175–79, 181–82, 185–86, 195; emotional/behavioral issues by, 166; ethnographic scholarship on, 14, 42; ICT and, 18; Mexican immigration by, 13–15, 17, 45, 163, 213–14; in migrating factors narratives of children, 100; migration aspirations by, 172–73; migration impact by, 45, 148–49; migration study bias to, 13–16, 41; motherhood ideologies and, 37, 41, 47–48, 58, 71; parental resentment from children left behind bias on, 111–12; of parent in school-related decisions, 76, 78; remittances and gifts impact by, 180–82; research inclusion of, 24; school drop-out rate in Mexico by, 26, 173; school/education expectations bias on, 4, 6, 28–29, 165–75, 177–78, 181–82, 185–86, 195, 199
gender hierarchies/divisions: academics stigmatized with, 178; in household labor, 14, 41, 165, 168–69, 175–78, 186; in immigration historically, 33; in income provision, 41; in marriage separations, 34; transnational mothering and, 15, 49–51
gifts. See remittances and gifts
girls. See gender
Glick-Schiller, N., 190
globalization and global capitalism: children and youth role in, 193; migration influenced by, 10–11, 13, 41; transnational care constellations and, 5
Gomberg-Muñoz, Ruth, 6–7
Goodwin, Doris Kearns, 41
grandmothers (in Mexico), 2–4, 26, 166; abandonment feeling from, 80; on biological mothers role, 85; children left behind deceived and controlled by, 65–67; conflict/falling out with, 62–67; gender roles enforced by, 178, 196; participant details for, 208–10; paternal compared to maternal, 53; school/education involvement for, 149–50, 171, 198–99, 221n1; worry of, 55. See also caregivers; intergenerational relationships
grandmothers (in U.S.), 59
green cards, 6–7
Guadalupe in New York: Devotion and Struggle for Citizenship Rights (Gálvez), 9<
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guilt: of migrant mothers, 3, 40, 45, 47, 56, 63, 128, 158; in mixed-status families, 18; sacrifice relationship to, 49, 58
Hamann, E. T., 13, 90, 200
Hays, S., 43–44
Herbalife, 221n1; employment with, 30–31, 151, 208; products sent to Mexico, 31–32; social life around, 30–31
Hidalgo, Mexico: academic performance by gender in, 173; migration from, 213; participants from and in, 1, 3, 72, 119, 173, 180–82, 208, 209; research scope and surveys in, 22, 117
historical structuralists, 10–11
Hochschild, A., 45, 102
homework: as academic performance factor, 162, 163; accountability in Mexico, 147, 149; caregivers difficulty assisting with, 73, 79–80, 85–86, 91, 198; gender roles in Mexico and, 163, 175, 178, 199; ICT role in, 74, 88–89; language barriers in assisting with, 79, 85, 140, 158, 168, 198–99; mothers role in assisting/enforcing, 76, 78, 79, 83, 85, 90, 154, 158, 168–69, 195, 201, 218; tutors in NYC for, 139–41, 154, 195
hospital stays, 122–24
household labor, 14, 41, 165, 168–69, 175–78, 186
housing and home environment: in Mexico, 147; in NYC, 78–79, 139–40, 141, 195, 221n2; stability/instability in, 139–41
ICT. See Internet and Communication Technologies
illiteracy, 79, 84, 85, 150
illness, 56
imagine, 6, 20, 98, 99, 104, 110, 120, 194, 217, 219
immigrants, 74–75; Filipino, research, 15, 26, 41, 45, 71, 136; gender historically for, 33; Mexican compared to other, 6
immigration policy: ethnographic scholarship/research informing, 199; family, 14; 1986 Act in, 33, 221n1; under Obama administration, 9, 129, 196; racial bias in, 8; under Trump administration, 196–97; for undocumented youth, 129–30
The Impact of International Migration: Children Left Behind in Selected Countries of Latin America and the Caribbean (UNICEF), 131, 182
income: educational/social experience in NYC variances by, 141, 194–95; for families left in Mexico, 26; gender hierarchies in provision of, 41; for migrant families, 8, 26, 37, 141, 194–95; migrant mothers as providers of, 3–4, 14, 27, 37, 41, 44–45, 71, 74–78, 85–86, 91, 127–28
inequalities: cross-border experience and perceptions of, 28, 98–99, 103–7, 109–11, 120–21, 194; economic, with remittances and gifts, 16, 136–37; in mixed-status families, 18
infants left behind, 35, 54–55
intensive mothering, 44
intergenerational relationships: conflict and distance in, 60–67; disciplinary tensions in, 48–49; for migrant mothers, 32, 37–40, 42, 46, 48–49, 53–54, 58, 60–67, 196; motherhood expectations in, 40, 46, 58
International Migration Review, 12
Internet and Communication Technologies (ICT): belonging and kinship impacted by, 18–19, 28, 89, 115–17, 121, 191; gender and, 18; Mexico increase in, 117–18; perceptions of “other side” through, 115–17; research using, 219; school/education life influenced by, 27–28, 74, 88–90, 91; transnational mothering reliance on, 18–19, 45, 74, 88–90, 91, 191–92
Jackson Heights, New York. See Queens, New York
Jalisco, Mexico, 17, 213
Kearney, Michael, 11–12, 111
kinship. See belonging and kinship
language barriers, 134–35, 159, 195; for mixed-status families, 37, 56, 83, 158; in parent-teacher conferences, 77–78, 79, 85, 193; in school for children, 81, 83; school involvement challenges with, 77–78, 79, 84–85, 87, 140–41, 154, 158, 168, 198–99; in socioeconomic status and academic success, 17
Latino, 7, 17, 24, 78, 134, 135, 153, 198
legal status: birth process obstacles and stress with, 122–24; children (US-born) discussions of, 103, 197–98; children feeling restriction due to, 152–53; employment accountability and, 15; 1986 Act impact for, 33, 221n1; school-related involvement and fear of, 73, 78, 85, 87. See also mixed-status families
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 42–43
Levitt, P., 190
Lincoln, Abraham, 41
Lionnet, F., 101
Long Island City, New York. See Queens, New York
Long-Wood-Stock, New York. See Bronx, New York
Manhattan, New York, 1, 217; demographics profile for, 215; participant details in, 208, 209; research demographics for, 215; research sites in, 23, 24. See also East Harlem, New York
Marcus, George, 21–22
marianismo, 47–48, 49, 51
marital status, 14–15, 26, 57, 208–10
marriage/love partnerships, 49–51; abuse in, 56–57, 61, 125, 127; affairs in, 157; alcoholism in, 33–34, 61; children prioritized over, 160; expectations for children’s, 174–75; ideologies in Mexico on, 34–35; stability in, 143–46, 171; statistics of, 145
McDermott, R., 221n3
men. See fathers; gender; marriage/love partnerships
mental illness, 56
Mexican Consulate (New York), 222n1
Mexican immigrants: citizenship obstacles for, 6–7; criminalization of, 9, 159; by gender and area of origin, 13–15, 17, 45, 163, 213–14; income for, 8, 26, 37, 195; in NYC past and present, 6–8, 215; population statistics for, 134; school/education and socioeconomic status for, 17–18, 134–35; social services and assistance for, 24, 150–51, 155, 157; victimization of female, 221n1. See also specific topics
Mexico: academic performance by gender in, 162–65, 182, 196; cartel violence in, 79–80; gender expectations for children in, 163, 175–79, 181–82, 185–86, 195, 199; gender roles in, 163–65, 175–76, 178, 196; housing and home environment in, 147; ICT increase in, 117–18; marriage ideologies in, 34–35; motherhood ideals in, 47–52; mothers school-related involvement in NYC compared to, 75, 77, 90, 212; move back to, factors, 135; NYC children perceptions of, 104–8, 109, 115–17, 194; parent-teacher conferences in NYC contrasted with, 77–88, 90–91; research methods and sites/participants in, 22–27, 26, 158–59, 208–10, 217–20; school drop-out rate, 26, 173, 174; school/education expectations for children left in, 165–70, 171–75, 177–78, 181–82, 184–88; school/education experience in NYC compared to, 4, 6, 27–28, 132–33, 137–38, 146, 155–56, 161, 190; school/education values in NYC compared to, 87–88, 161; school/education variances in NYC compared to, 146, 156, 194–95; school enrollment and graduation rates in, 146–47, 164–65; schooling in, 146–50; school system divisions in, 222n1; school systems in U.S. compared with, 211–12; social life for women in, 31. See also specific states
Mexico State, Mexico, 22, 208, 210, 213
Michoacan, Mexico, 17, 213
Mid-South Bronx, New York. See South Bronx, New York
Migrant Hearts and the Atlantic Return (Napolitano), 48
migrant mothers and transnational mothering: age range for, 26, 52; birth process and fear of deportation for, 122–24; caregivers relationship and negotiations with, 37, 38, 52–58, 60–67, 88; children left behind resentment of, 111–12; deportation impacts on, 197; discipline by caregivers compared to, 48–49, 76–77, 158; employment for, 26, 37, 126–27, 151, 155, 157, 208–10; gender constructs in, 15, 49–51; guilt with, 3, 40, 45, 47, 56, 63, 128, 142; ICT reliance for, 18–19, 45, 74, 88–90, 91, 191–92; impacts and costs of, 15, 17, 29, 148–49, 190; income provision expectations/aspirations for, 3–4, 14, 27, 37, 41, 44–45, 71, 74–78, 85–86, 91, 127–28; intergenerational relationships for, 32, 37–40, 42, 46, 48–49, 53–54, 58, 60–67, 196; marriage/partnerships for, 49–51; motherhood ideals impacted with, 27, 38–40, 41, 44–47, 51, 58; parent-teacher conferences for, 77–88, 90–91, 193; participant details for, 208–10; paternal migration impact compared with, 45, 148–49; return to Mexico plans for, 56; role transformation for, 49–51, 58; school/education success of children tied to stability of, 132–33, 140–41, 146, 155–56, 190; school-related decisions for children left behind significance for, 68–77, 193; statistics by area of origin, 213; welfare system use by, 154–55, 195. See also mother, biological; transnational care constellations; specific topics
migrating f
actors, 13–14, 58, 60; abuse in, 125, 127; caregivers on, 101–2, 166; children left behind decisions in, 34–35; children’s perspective of, 99–100, 101–3, 107, 113, 183; employment as, 99–100; opportunity as, 11, 50, 52, 57, 99–100, 160, 166, 195; sacrifice narrative in, 101–4, 168, 192–93; school/education as, 5, 70–71, 72–73, 75, 127, 166, 168, 170; sexual harassment as, 61–62
migration plans and aspirations: for children left behind, 149, 162–63, 172–73; for crossing, 62–63; discussions of, 52–53; in secret, 52–53, 63
migration theory and study: anthropological approach in, 10–13; feminization of migration in, 40–41; gender in, 13–16, 41; limits of, 11–12; push and pull factors in, 11; Rosaldo on, 8–9
Minor Transnationalism (Lionnet and Shih), 101
mixed-status families, 199; conflict in, 18, 103, 135; deportation fear in, 7, 152–53, 197–98; language barriers for, 37, 56, 83, 158; research methods and sites for, 23; school/education aspirations impacted in, 135; socioeconomic status of, 133; treatment inequalities in, 18
Mixteca Poblana, Mexico, 31, 217
modernization theory, 11
Morelos, Mexico, 22; migration from, 213; participants from, 208; schooling in, 148
mother, biological: bond with caregivers compared with, 35, 52, 54–55, 65–67, 96–97; caregivers expectations on role of, 76–77, 85–86; caregivers from father’s side compared to, 53; education provision expectation for, 3–4, 14, 27, 37, 41, 44–45, 71, 74–78, 85–86, 91, 127–28; school/education involvement/enforcement role of, 68–79, 83–85, 90, 140–41, 154, 158, 168–69, 193, 195, 198–99, 201, 212, 218; school/education provider expectations on, 3–4, 14, 27, 37, 41, 44–45, 71, 74–78, 85–86, 91, 127–28; societal value of, 17, 52; transnational care constellation role of, 3–4, 20–21, 21
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