Millenium

by Tom Holland

  Knocking on Heaven's Door

  Evil times made for perilous journeys. Even before the spread of castles across the kingdom had helped to make lords out of bandits, and bandits out of lords, the roads were not lightly trodden. Hugh Capet himself, returning from Rome and his mortifying audience with Otto II, had been able to escape the attentions of kidnappers only by submitting to a yet greater humiliation, and travelling in the disguise of a groom. The decades that followed his accession had seen the dangers grow ever worse. The poor were far from alone in being the prey of predatory knights. Merchants too, as they travelled to markets, would increasingly find themselves being stopped and obliged to pay extortionate tolls, or else 'be whipped for their possessions'. Pilgrims, huntsmen out with their dogs, even 'noble women journeying in the absence of their husbands': all might end up as targets.37 'Omnia permixta sunt': 'chaos reigns everywhere'. It was hard for the nervous traveller, hurrying to find shelter as the light thickened, glancing anxiously over his shoulder, ever fearful of the sound of distant hoof beats, to doubt that this was so. Man had indeed become predacious, it appeared, as predacious as the wolf, that snifFer after carrion, and no less cruel, no less savage in his appetites. Where, then, as the twilight gathered, was shelter to be found?

  Perhaps — God's mysterious hand being what it was — amid the very worst of the disorder. Just as there were whole regions of France that had been spared dramatic upheaval, so were there others that had been convulsed by a particular violence. In Burgundy, for instance, on the easternmost frontier of the kingdom, royal authority had collapsed no less totally than elsewhere in the south. Here, however, exceptionally, King Robert had sought to make a stand. For decades, he and his armies* would persist in trampling the fields of the duchy, while the local castellans, profiting from the conditions of ceaseless warfare, grew fat on the carnage like flies on gouts of blood. A traveller did not have to venture far across Burgundy to witness marks of agony. It was no wonder to find the bodies even of children lying by the roadside. Men driven lunatic by what they had witnessed - or perpetrated, perhaps — haunted the region's woods, spectral figures wasted by despair.

  Yet Burgundy was not all horror. Very far from it. Though the duchy was violent, it was also the seat of something miraculous: a refuge from the evils of the times that even the papacy, in naked awe, acclaimed as Christendom's most impregnable sanctuary, a veritable 'haven of piety and salvation'.18 So it was, for instance, that after a par­ticularly maddened soldier was found wandering naked in the woods outside Nantua, a town just to the south of Burgundy, the monks caring for him had no hesitation in sending him northwards to be cured, back on the very road that led to the duchy's killing fields. An unsettling journey, no doubt, and a dangerous one — but with the promise, at its end, of true asylum.

  It was the Almighty Himself, it appeared, who had fitted Cluny for such a role. All around the wide valley on which the abbey stood there stretched wooded hills, sheltering and enclosing it against the outside world - very much like the cloisters of a monastery. It was only a cen­tury previously, however, that this resemblance had first been noted: for until then the valley had been a hunting ground, and inordinately prized as such by its original owner, the Duke of Aquitaine. But in 910, William, the holder of that title, had been old and childless - and with murder on his conscience. Accordingly, for the sake of his soul, he had resolved to found an abbey; and the monks to whom he had confided this ambition had immediately pointed out, with a certain grim relish, that the ideal spot for it would be none other than his favourite hunt­ing ground. Any reluctance that William might have felt at the prospect of forfeiting such a prize had been sternly overridden. 'For you know which will serve you better before God: the baying of hounds or the prayers of monks.' To that, there had been no possible comeback; and so it was, on 11 September 910, that William had signed away the valley.

  One century on, and it was evident to everyone who drew near to Cluny that the Almighty had looked favourably indeed upon the Duke of Aquitaine's gift. Or to almost everyone, perhaps. A deserter such as the wild man of Nantua, traumatised as he was, and fearful of battlements, would no doubt have found the spectacle of the abbey's ramparts a most alarming one at first: for flourishing monasteries, it was true, did often wear a menacing aspect. So it was, for instance, at Fleury, a celebrated foundation on the Loire, and Cluny's only real rival as the pre-eminent monastery in France, that there towered a donjon 'of squared blocks'19 no less imposing than anything raised by Fulk Nerra; while at Cluny itself, its abbot, Father Odilo, was a great enthusiast for replacing wood with stone. Yet no matter how intimidatingly the gateway of the abbey might loom above them, there was nothing beyond it for the poor to fear: no stronghold of robber knights. 'For I was hungry and you gave me food.' So Christ Himself had spoken. 'I was thirsty and you gave me drink, I was a stranger and you welcomed me, I was naked and you clothed me.'40 Daily, there­fore, when the starving poor gathered before the gates of Cluny, up to thirty-six pounds of bread would be handed out to them by the broth­ers of the monastery; and the monks, as they performed their work of charity, would prostrate themselves before each and every recipient of their alms, as though before the Saviour.

  Even the abbot himself, one of the greatest men of Christendom, if he were obliged to ride out into the world, would make certain never to turn away anyone 'from the bosom of his mercy'.41 The sainted Odo, for instance, had not shrunk from carrying a foul- smelling sack filled with garlic and onions for one weary old man, to the horror of his companion; while Odilo, elected to his post only six years before the Millennium, would pause whenever he saw a corpse by the roadside and have a grave dug for it, then kneel to wrap it with great tenderness in his cloak. For come the Day of Judgement, he knew, his every account would have to be rendered.

  And from what lay waiting beyond the Day of Judgement, that moment of supreme and joyous mystery, when the old earth would pass away and the new Jerusalem descend from God 'as a bride adorned for her husband',42 it was the glory of Cluny, more than any other shrine raised by the hands of man, to part the veil. Always the gaze of its brethren was fixed, not on the fallen world, but on the splendours of the next. Indeed, it was their aspiration, a truly awe­some one, to transcend their own mortal nature. 'For if monks are perfect,' Odo had argued, 'then they are rendered similar to the blessed angels.'43 The wild man of Nantua, led cringing to the gates of Cluny, would surely soon have found his terrors set at ease. Noble though the accents of the monks would have proclaimed them, nobler, often, than many a castellan, in almost every way they would have appeared to the deserter not as potentes at all but as pauperes, just like himself. At Cluny, every brother lived by an ancient and unbending rule, one that had described the practice of humility as a ladder ascending to God; and its most solemn command, 'the twelfth degree', was that a monk's humility should be made manifest to all the world. So it was that, shamingly, he would wear his hair even shorter than a peasant's, shaved to form a tonsure, in appear­ance like a crown of thorns; he would dress in a black cowl, drab and unadorned, no better than a workman's; and at all times he would 'keep his head bowed, and his eyes fixed upon the ground'.44 Inviting the wretched deserter from Nantua to sit down by the monastery gateway, the monks charged with his reception would have bowed before him, and then brought water, and washed and dried his feet. Only incidentally, however, was this done as a personal service to a filth-encrusted lunatic: for the truest benefit was to the souls of the humbled monks themselves.

  Yet even that was not the highest purpose of the ritual. Back in the early years of the abbey's existence, St Odo had laid down a potent marker of all his hopes for the infant monastery, by insisting that vis­itors' shoes as well as their feet should be washed. Excessive? There were some monks at the time who had grumbled that it was. And yet how muddied by a lack of ambition, to say nothing of worldly pride, all such moaning had been—for Cluny, as Odo had trusted, was fated to be no ordinary monastery. Unprotected by the s
words and spears of mortal warriors it may have been - and yet impressions of the abbey as a mighty citadel, girt around by fearsome ramparts, were not so wide of the mark.

  Of the delicate and aristocratic Odilo it was said that he had the look, not of a duke, but of a prince of the archangels - which was to cast the monastery he headed as a radiant bridgehead of heaven. No wonder, then, that demons were widely believed to lie encamped all around its outer walls, placing it under a perpetual siege, driven by 'the malice that the Devil has always harboured against Cluny';45 but fated, so long as the abbey's sanctity held firm, never to make a breach. No wonder either that the brethren who served as its gatekeepers should have required all who entered it to be cleansed - yes, and to have their shoes washed too. Filth was precisely what enabled demons to flourish. At Fleury, for instance, in a typically fiendish dis­play of cunning, devils had made an attempt to steal through the sewers that led up to the brothers' lavatories; and only the monastery's patron saint, standing invisible guard over the urinals, had served to foil their plot. At Cluny likewise, the watch kept by the monks had to be tireless and unblinking. No hint of pollution could be per­mitted to infect the sacred space. The infernal and the earthly: both had to be kept at bay. To pass into Cluny was indeed to pass into a realm of angels.

  But what was the abbey's secret, what the source of its fearsome sanctity? Even a visitor as lunatic as the wild man of Nantua, taking his first tremulous steps inside the monastery, would surely have found himself conscious within seconds of something strange. To any refugee from chaos, Cluny could offer that rarest and most precious of all balms: order. It was to be found in the regular spacing of rich tapestries along the walls and of sumptuous carpets along the floors, as dazzling as they were beautiful, serving to soften every footfall, and to proclaim the praises of God. Even to a visiting dignitary, fittings such as these would have appeared rare luxuries - but to a beggarman such as the deserter from Nantua they would have appeared a glimpse of paradise. Which, in a sense, they were: for the monks of Cluny, in their own estimation at any rate, were the nearest to heaven of mortals any­where. To the great bishops of the kingdom, long accustomed to look down upon abbots such as Odilo, this was a display of arrogance that verged almost on the blasphemous; but Odilo himself and the brethren he commanded were unperturbed. They knew that the end days were drawing near. At such a moment of excruciating peril, with the future of all humanity hanging in the balance, what else should they be doing but securing on earth an impregnable outpost of the City of God?

  Earlier generations of monks, following the prescriptions of their rule, had devoted themselves to manual labour, so as to display humil­ity, and to scholarship, so as to train their souls; but the monks of Cluny had little time for either activity. Instead, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, they sang the praises of the Lord: for this, in heaven, was what the choirs of angels did. Indeed, on one occasion, it was claimed, a monk had ended up so lost in his devotions that he had actually begun to levitate. Prayers and hymns, anthems and responses: the chanting never stopped. Odo had required his brethren to recite one hundred and thirty-eight psalms a day: more than three times what had traditionally been expected of a monk. Barely a minute of a Cluniac's life went by, in short, but it was governed by ritual, as unwearying as it was implacable. Hence, for its admirers, the monastery's unprecedented nimbus of holiness: 'for so reverently are the masses performed there,' as Rudolf Glaber put it, 'so piously and worthily, that you would think them the work, not of men, but of angels indeed'.'46

  Here, then, was the well-spring of Cluny's power: mysterious, tute­lary, literally supernatural. Among those who reverenced it, of course, were the monks of Nantua, who had dutifully sent the deserter found wandering in the woods to be healed at the more celebrated monastery; nor was their faith betrayed. Brought before Odilo, the wild man was first permitted to listen to the brethren of the abbey as they chanted their psalms, and then sprinkled with holy water. His sanity was restored. Wonders such as this were widely reported - and the cause of much admiration. Even a living saint such as Romuald - no slouch himself when it came to performing miracles - was impressed by Cluny's reputation. It was, the hermit pronounced, the 'flower’ of monasteries: a pattern for all the world.47 If such was the view from as far afield as Italy, then the perspective of those who lived directly in Cluny's shadow was, unsurprisingly, touched even more directly by awe.

  Which was just as well - for the legions of Satan were not the only adversaries hemming in the monastery. The local castellans, if not precisely demons, were menacing neighbours, nevertheless. To men whose fortunes derived from the morality of the protection racket, the monastery could not help but seem tempting prey - and all the more so because Cluny, unlike most other foundations, had no earthly lord to whom it could turn for protection. Instead, by the terms of Duke William's charter, the abbey had been declared 'free from the rule of any king, bishop, count, or relative of its founder',48 and placed under the wing of a heavenly patron: none other than St Peter himself. Naturally — with the Prince of Apostles absent on pressing celestial duties, and his earthly vicar, the Pope, far away in Rome - this had meant, in effect, that the abbot was on his own. An alarming prospect, certainly, with 'the waves of evil breaking ever higher'49 but it was also, amid all the gathering blackness, precisely what enabled Cluny to blaze with such effulgence as a beacon of sanc­tity. Independence presented Odilo with opportunity as well as danger: for it ensured that his monastery could be seen as neutral — as an honest broker. This, in an age of murderous rivalries, was no negligible qual­ification; and all the more so because Cluny's aura of holiness appeared to demonstrate that it was indeed guarded over by St Peter. Such a reflection was sufficient to give even the most brutal knight pause- for who, with the end time nearing, wished to give needless offence to the keeper of the keys of heaven?

  No surprise, then, that the presence in their midst of an abbey belonging to the mightiest of all the saints should have served to inspire in the local castellans a quite unaccustomed measure of unease. There were many, it was true, who sought to vent this in the surest way they knew how. Cattle-rustling, horse-stealing, the wasting of crops in fields: Cluny endured the full range of knightly crimes'. A particular explosion of violence greeted Odilo when he was elected abbot in 994. The monastery's servants were nakedly assaulted; some were even killed. Murders such as these served to highlight the grievance that had aggravated the castellans more than anything: a trend for impoverished peasants, desperate to escape the mercies of the local knights, to opt for the lesser of two evils, and bind themselves over to the monastery as serfs. Better to be the dependants of St Peter, such wretches had evidently cal­culated, than the things of a violent warlord. The monks of Cluny agreed. Certainly, they had no qualms about putting peasants to work for them in their fields, their barns, their mills. What else was a mortal's duty, after all, if not to labour to the greater glory of God and His Church? There were some men who were called to sing psalms all day; and there were others who were called to dig. Even castellans, according to this formulation, might not always have to prowl beyond the pale: for what if they too had their part to play? 'A layman who serves as a warrior', St Odo himself had argued, 'is perfectly entitled to carry a sword if it is in order to defend those who have no swords themselves, like an innocent flock of sheep from the wolves that appear at twilight.'50 As a demonstration that this was not merely wishful thinking, Odo had cited the example of one particular aristocrat, Gerald, the lord of Aurillac, Gerbert's birthplace, who all his life had refrained from stealing the land of the poor, who had only ever fought in battle using the flat of his sword, and who, in short, had been such a paragon that he had ended up a saint. 'And every second year,' Odo had added, in a hopeful postscript, 'he would go to the tomb of St Peter with ten shillings hung around his neck, as though he were a serf, paying his due to his lord.'51

  To expect castellans as well as peasants to become the dependants of St P
eter was, perhaps, pushing things—and yet the hope that the local lords might be persuaded, not merely to tolerate Cluny, but actively to contribute to its greater glory, and to that of its patron saint, the Prince of Apostles, was not a wholly ludicrous one, even so. The more grievous a sinner's crimes, the more terrible his dread of hell was likely to be. Assaults on Cluny's estates may indeed have been escalating - but so too, simultaneously, were donations of property to the monastery. Odilo, shrewd tactician that he was, had moved quickly to take advantage of this seemingly bizarre paradox. No sooner had he been elected abbot than he was brokering an emergency council at the nearby town of Anse. Presided over by two archbishops, no less, a formidable array of local dignitaries sought to back him up as thunder­ously as it could. The abbey and all its swelling portfolio of estates were declared sacrosanct. Fearsome curses were pronounced against all who encroached upon them. The knights and their masters were called upon to swear a solemn oath of peace. Yet even as the shim­mering inviolability of Cluny was proclaimed anew, and in terms that brooked no possible misunderstanding, Odilo was careful to extend an olive branch to the castellans.

  The anarchy of the times, brutally though it menaced the abbey, menaced its assailants too. Even the most lawless of warlords, once installed in a castle, had a stake in preserving what he had seized. No longer was it possible for the distant king to bestow legitimacy upon a usurper - but St Peter could. Odilo, by inviting all the local castellans to swear the oath of peace together as equals, was laying before them a fearsome choice. Either they could persist in their savagery, cause and symptom alike of the cracking of the age, portents, no less than plague or famine, of the imminent end of days; or else they too, like Odilo's monks, could take up their place in the line of battle, to serve as the warriors, not of Antichrist, but of God Himself.