When China Rules the World
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[793] Sun Shuyun, A Year in Tibet , p. 66.
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[794] Many have remarked on what they see as the racism of Chinese societies and communities. Howard Gardner, the American educationalist, writes: ‘As a group, the Chinese tend to be ethnocentric, xenophobic and racist. Most people prefer to be with their own kind… but few have come to feel as strongly about this separatism over the millennia as the Han’ (To Open Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1989), p. 130). Colin Mackerras suggests: ‘Many Chinese care little for the minorities, let alone their cultures, and tend to look down on them’ (‘What is China?’, p. 221). Lucian Pye writes: ‘The most pervasive underlying Chinese emotion is a profound, unquestioned, generally unshakeable identification with historical greatness… This is all so-evident that they are hardly aware when they are being superior to others’ (The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harward University Press, 1992), p. 50). Chen Kuan-Hsing warns: ‘Han Chinese racism will be a regional, if not global, problem’ (‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’).
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[795] www.malaysiakini.com/letters/33156 also 33115. Other discussions include: http://shanghai.asiaxpat.com/forums/speakerscorner/threads/65529.asp; http: www.chinahistoryforum.com/index.php?s=982bfbe08a75508b7a9de 815588c6f12&showtopic=9760&st=15&p=4788117&#entry4788117
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[796] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 7, 94.
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[797] Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 75.
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[798] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’. There is little difference between racial attitudes in China and Taiwan; Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 4, 42-3.
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[799] For example, Barry Sautman and Ellen Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong’, Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies, 2 (2000); and Kelley Loper, ‘Cultivating a Multicultural Society and Combating Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, Civic Exchange, August 2001.
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[800] Sautman and Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, p. 17.
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[801] Ibid., pp. 73-6. Thirteen per cent of Hong Kong families with children of twelve or older employ a foreign domestic worker; according to a survey by the Asian Migrant Centre, almost a quarter were abused; South China Morning Post, 15 February 2001. ‘Malaysian Jailed for Maid Attacks’, 27 November 2008, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news.
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[802] Sautman and Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, pp. 21- 4.
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[803] Ibid., p. 12.
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[804] www.harinderveriah.com/articles.html.
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[805] In fact, Indians have been living in Hong Kong since 1841.
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[806] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’.
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[807] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 45.
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[808] Ibid., pp. 50–51.
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[809] Ibid., pp. 76-7.
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[810] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 194.
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[811] Dikötter, The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, pp. 25- 6; Erin Chung, ‘Anti-Black Racism in China ’ (12 April 2005) and ‘Nanjing Anti-African Protests of 1988- 89’, posted on www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2005/04/nanjing_antiafr.php.
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[812] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 48, 50, 71.
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[813] New York Times, 19 January 1989, cited by Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 46.
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[814] Ibid., pp. 41, 44–50.
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[815] Jennifer Brea, ‘ Beijing Police Round Up and Beat African Expats’, Guardian, 26 September 2007.
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[816] Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, ‘Friends and Interests: China ’s Distinctive Links with Africa ’, African Studies Reviews 50: 3 (December 2007), p. 91.
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[817] Ibid., pp. 147- 8.
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[818] This was published on www.ncn.org. See also Martin Jacques, ‘The Middle Kingdom Mentality’, Guardian, 16 April 2005.
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[819] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 91.
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[820] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 139- 46, 156-7; and Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era, pp. 111-12.
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[821] Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, lecture at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 7 February 2005, p. 1.
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[822] Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 153.
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[823] Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, p. 1.
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[824] Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 154- 5.
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[825] Ibid., p. 155.
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[826] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 123, 125, 132- 3, 137.
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[827] Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (London: William Heinemann, 2003), pp. 28–46.
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[828] Interview with Richard Oh, Jakarta, February 2004.
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[829] James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), p. 203; and Lovell, The Great Wall, p. 87.
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[830] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 56.
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[831] Chinese Cultural Center, San Francisco, conference ‘In Search of Roots’, 28 February 1998.
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[832] Evan Leong, ‘Are You Chinese?’ paper presented at the same conference.
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[833] Ibid., p. 9.
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[834] Ibid., p. 11.
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[835] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 5, 22, 41.
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[836] Hideo Ohashi, ‘ China ’s Regional Trade and Investment Profile’, in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 83.
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[837] Michael Fullilove, ‘Chinese Diaspora Carries Torch for Old Country’, Financial Times, 18 May 2008; Geoff Dyer and Peter Smith, ‘Chinese Rally to the Torch in Australia ’, Financial Times, 21 April 2008; ‘ Seoul Raps Chinese Protesters at Torch Rally’, South China Morning Post, 29 April 2008; ‘Chinese-Australians in Large Show of Support for Torch’, South China Morning Post, 25 April 2008. Also Erik Eckholm, ‘Chinese Abroad Exult in Glory of Olympics’, International Herald Tribune, 12 August 2008.
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[838] According to the 1999 census; Zhao, Nation-State by Construction, pp. 192- 3. Also, Robyn Iredale, Naran Bilik, Wang Su, Fei Guo and Caroline Hoy, Contemporary Minority Migration, Education and Ethnicity in China (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2001).
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[839] Interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, August 2005.
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[840] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, May 2006.
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[841] Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, p. 323.
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[842] Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, p. 57.
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[843] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, May 2006.
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[844] Ibid.
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[845] Quoted in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999) p. 679.
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&nbs
p; [846] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’.
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[847] Interview with Lu Liang, Taipei, March 1999.
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[848] Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, pp. 36- 8.
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[849] Martin Jacques, ‘Global Hierarchy of Race’, Guardian, 20 September 2003.
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[850] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 51.
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[851] Yan Xuetong, ‘The Rise of China in Chinese Eyes’, Journal of Contemporary China , 10: 26 (2001), pp. 33-4.
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[852] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 50.
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[853] Shi Anbin, ‘Mediating Chinese-ness: Identity Politics and Media Culture in Contemporary China’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 19.
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[854] Thomas Fuller, ‘ Asia Builds a New Road to Prosperity’, International Herald Tribune, 31 March 2008.
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[855] Zhang Yunling and Tang Shiping, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 51-2.
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[856] John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 10–11; Alexander Vuving, ‘Traditional and Modern Sino-Vietnamese Relations’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 2.
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[857] Seo-Hyun Park, ‘ Small States and the Search for Sovereignty in Sinocentric Asia: The Case of Japan and Korea in the Late Nineteenth Century’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, pp. 3- 10.
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[858] William A. Callahan, Contingent States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 88- 9.
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[859] Park, ‘ Small States, and the Search for Sovereighty in Sinocentity Asia’, pp. 3- 11.
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[860] Chung-in Moon and Seung-won Suh, ‘Overcoming History: The Politics of Identity and Nationalism’, Global Asia, 2: 1, (5 April 2007), pp. 35-6.
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[861] David C. Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytical Frameworks’, International Security, 27: 4 (Spring 2003), pp. 66- 7.
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[862] Ibid., p. 11; Callahan, Contingent States, p. 89.
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[863] Suisheng Zhao, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), p. 256.
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[864] Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 197; Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, p. 84.
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[865] Though the ASEAN countries importantly did not condemn China, see David Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom? China and Asia in the Early Twenty-first Century’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 26.
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[866] It became merely a consultative partner of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994.
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[867] Wang Jisi, ‘ China ’s Changing Role in Asia ’, p. 4, available at www.irchina.org.
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[868] Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia: Normalizing Their Strategic Partnership’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 232. China has also managed to agree all its borders with its East Asian neighbours, the outstanding exception being those with India.
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[869] Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 30; John W. Garver, ‘ China ’s Influence in Central and South Asia: Is It Increasing?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 211; and Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia ’, p. 236.
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[870] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China (Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2005), pp. 31- 2.
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[871] Ibid., p. 67.
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[872] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom? China and Asia in the Early Twenty-first Century’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, pp. 26- 7.
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[873] Quoted in David C. Kang, China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 131.
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[874] Anthony Reid, ‘Nationalisms in South East Asia ’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore seminar paper, 24 January 2006.
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[875] Shee Poon Kim, ‘East Asian New Regionalism: Toward Economic Integration? ’, Ritsumeikan International Affairs, 5, 2003, p. 70.
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[876] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China, p. 3; Shee Poon Kim, ‘The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy: Economic Cooperation, Political and Strategic Ambivalence’, Annual Review of International Studies, 3 (2004), p. 7.
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[877] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom?’, p. 27.
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[878] www.aseansec.org/16646.htm; and Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia ’, p. 204.
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[879] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China , p. 18.
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[880] Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 32; and Callahan, Contingent States, p. 71.
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[881] Rex Li, ‘Security Challenge of an Ascendant China: Great Power Emergence and International Stability’, in Zhao, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 28.
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[882] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 66. An 8,000-strong contingent of Marines is based on Hainan Island for the purpose of defending China ’s claims.
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[883] Zhang Yunling, ed., Designing East Asian FTA: Rationale and Feasibility (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2006), p. 61; Nobutoshi Akao, ‘Re-energizing Japan’s Asean Policy’, AJISS-Commentary, 2 August 2007, posted on www.jiia.or.jp/en.