8. Schwarz, PhD thesis, pp. 17–22, 113–14.
9. Russell T. Trall, The New Hydropathic Cookbook, with Recipes for Cooking on Hygienic Principles: Containing Also a Philosophical Exposition of the Relations of Food to Health (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1857); Russell T. Trall, The Hydropathic Encyclopedia: A System of Hydropathy and Hygiene in Eight Parts. Designed as a Guide to Families and Students and a Textbook for Physicians (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1851). See also J. H. Kellogg, Rational Hydropathy: A Manual of the Physiological and Therapeutic Effects of Hydriatic Procedure, and the Technique of Their Application in the Treatment of Disease, in Two Volumes, 2nd edition (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, Publishers, 1903).
10. At his father’s insistence, Merritt (1832–1922) earned his bachelor’s degree in 1851 at the abolitionist-minded and spiritually compatible Oberlin College (as did Smith Kellogg). He had attended Trall’s school during the winter term of 1867 and was working as a missionary in California. In 1878, he directed a Rural Health Retreat in the Napa Valley and in 1893 he worked on missionary and health reform work in the South Pacific and Australia, where he established the Seventh-day Adventist Sanitarium in Sydney. He returned to California in 1903 when health problems forced him to retire. Numbers, Prophetess of Health, pp. 172–73; Merritt Kellogg, The Bath: Its Use and Application (Battle Creek, MI: Office of the Health Reformer, 1873); Merritt Kellogg, The Hygienic Family Physician: A Complete Guide for the Preservation of Health, and the Treatment of Sick Without Medicine (Battle Creek, MI: Office of the Health Reformer, 1874); Gary Land, “Kellogg, Merritt Gardner (1832–1922),” Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists, 2nd edition (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), p. 159.
11. Numbers, Prophetess of Health, pp. 173–74. The witness Professor Numbers is referring to is the Elder John Loughborough in The Great Second Advent Movement: Its Rise and Progress (Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1909), pp. 364–65. Dr. Numbers cautions his readers on the reliability of this witness. See also J. N. Andrews and Others, “Lectures by Dr. Trall,” Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, May 26, 1868; 31: 360; Russell T. Trall, “Visit to Battle Creek, Michigan” and “Dress Reform Convention,” The Health Reformer, September 1869; 4: 14 and 57.
12. Russell Trall, An Essay on Tobacco-Using. Being a Philosophical Exposition on the Effects of Tobacco on the Human System (Battle Creek, MI: Office of the Health Reformer, 1872), pp. 47–48. The italicized “prepense” is Trall’s; the term “malice prepense” means deliberate malice.
13. Whorton, Nature Cures, p. 91.
14. Ibid.
15. Russell Trall, Sexual Physiology and Hygiene, or The Mysteries of Man, 28th edition (New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1881), pp. xi, 201, 244–45, 248, 257; Whorton, Nature Cures, pp. 93–94.
16. Trall, Sexual Physiology and Hygiene, pp. 244–45.
17. Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, pp. 27–28.
18. Merritt G. Kellogg, Dictated Memories to Clara K. Butler, October 12, 1916, Reel 1, Images 132–39 (page 3 of the typescript), J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
19. Ibid., pp. 6–7 of the typescript.
20. Ibid., p. 2 of the typescript; A. S. Bloese Manuscript, p. 55, Box 1, File 13.
21. Merritt G. Kellogg, Dictated Memories to Clara K. Butler, October 12, 1916, p. 5 of the typescript; William H. Brock, Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 72–93, 215–49.
22. Numbers, Prophetess of Health, pp. 176–77; Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, pp. 28–29, 91.
23. Merritt G. Kellogg, Dictated Memories to Clara K. Butler, October 12, 1916, quote appears on Images 135–36, or pp. 4–5 of the manuscript copy.
24. Numbers, Prophetess of Health, p. 177.
25. James White, “She Sleeps in Jesus,” Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, March 11, 1880; 55(11): 169. Typhoid pneumonia is an infection of the lungs caused by the same bacillus, Salmonella typhii, that causes typhoid fever. “Typhoid Pneumonia,” Journal of the AMA, 1901; 37(20): 1322.
26. 15th Census of the United States: 1930, Volume 1: Population. Number and Distribution of Inhabitants (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1931). The 1870 population data for Battle Creek and Ann Arbor appears on page 512. The Pioneer Society, History of Washtenaw County, Michigan: Together with Sketches of its Cities, Villages and Townships, Educational, Religious, Civil, Military and Political History; Portraits of Prominent Persons and Biographies of Representative Citizens (Chicago: Chas. C. Chapman & Co., 1881); O. W. Stephenson, Ann Arbor: The First Hundred Years (Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Chamber of Commerce/Alumni Press of the University of Michigan, 1927).
27. By 1877, however, the University of Michigan could no longer ignore the glaring deficits in their lesson plans and the Regents ordered the Medical School to increase its annual session from two six-month semesters to two terms lasting nine months each. In 1880, a new three-year, graded course introduced a sequence of basic science courses, followed by pathology and therapeutics, and then clinical work; and in 1890 a four-year calendar. Abraham Flexner, A Report on Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin No. 4 (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1910); Horace W. Davenport, Not Just Any Medical School: The Science, Practice and Teaching of Medicine at the University of Michigan, 1850–1941 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), pp. 1–20.
28. “University of Michigan Department of Medicine and Surgery. Examination of Candidates for Admission. 6th October, 1875” and “University of Michigan Department of Medicine and Surgery. Examination of Candidates for Admission. September 30, 1876,” Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan.
29. Calendar of the University of Michigan for 1876–77 (Ann Arbor: Published by the University, 1873), p. 100. Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
30. Steward’s Ledger of Medical Students, for 1873–1874, University of Michigan, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
31. Victor C. Vaughan, A Doctor’s Memories (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1926), pp. 197–98.
32. William Osler, “Books and Men,” Aequanimitas with Other Addresses to Medical Students, Nurses and Practitioners of Medicine (Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Son and Company, 1904), pp. 217–25, quote is from p. 220; Davenport, Not Just Any Medical School, pp. 1–20; Wilfred B. Shaw, ed., “The Medical School and the University Hospital,” The University of Michigan: An Encyclopedic Survey, Volume 2 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), pp. 773–1015.
33. “Practice of Surgery,” Notebook for 1873–1874, J. H. Kellogg, University of Michigan Medical School Notes, Box 16, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
34. Vaughan, A Doctor’s Memories, p. 202.
35. In the late 1880s, Dr. Maclean tried to block the medical school’s request to the governor of Michigan for a university hospital in Ann Arbor, much to Dean Vaughan’s chagrin. The surgeon was either forced to resign or was fired from the Medical School in 1889. He then focused on his surgical practice in Detroit and explained to others that he left because he could not keep his fingers nimble enough in a village with so few patients. Davenport, Not Just Any Medical School, pp. 19–22.
36. Vaughan, A Doctor’s Memories, pp. 184–212; Rueben Peterson, “Edward Swift Dunster: A Biographical Sketch,” The Michigan Alumnus, June 1905, pp. 417–25. For a history of the Long Island College Hospital, see Jack E. Termine, SUNY Downstate Medical Center (Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia, 2000), pp. 9–48. For a history of science as practiced on Long Island, see Arnold H. Eggerth, The History of the Hoagland Laboratory (Brooklyn: Long Island College Hospital, 1960).
37. Sanitarium Minutes, May 11, June 18, August 4, 1873; August 17, 23, 24, 30, 1874; Collection 234, Box 4, File 5, Center for Adventist Research.
39. Eagle Heights: The W. K. Kellogg Manor (Hickory Corners, MI: Michigan State University/Kellogg Biological Station, 2015), p. 11.
40. Powell, pp. 24–25.
41. Daniel Drake, Malaria in the Interior Valley of North America. A selection by Norman D. Levine from a systematic treatise, historical, etiological, and practical, on the principal diseases of the interior valley of North America, as they appear in the Caucasian, African, Indian, and Esquimaux varieties of its population (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964); E. H. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1945); Sok Chul Hong, “The Burden of Early Exposure to Malaria in the United States, 1850–1860: Malnutrition and Immune Disorders,” Journal of Economic History, December 2007; 67(4): 1001–35.
42. Powell, p. 29.
43. Williamson Jr., An Intimate Glimpse, p. 7.
44. Powell, p. 26.
45. Ibid., p. 33; Steven Watts, The People’s Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), pp. 10–13.
46. Powell, p. 32.
47. Ibid., p. 220.
48. Ibid., p. 130. The friend was Arch Shaw.
49. Ibid., p. 32.
50. Ibid., p. 37.
51. The foundation funded two institutes at the University of Michigan, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation Institute for Graduate and Postgraduate Dentistry (1938) and the W. K. Kellogg Eye Center (1976).
52. See David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York: Anchor, 2012).
53. W. K. Kellogg, “In His Own Words,” in “A Battle Creek Celebration: W. K. Kellogg 150 Years,” Scene Magazine, 1997; 34(1): 14–15, quote is from p. 15.
54. Quote is from Powell, p. 24; Carson, p. 89.
55. Powell, pp. 34–35.
4.
LONG-DISTANCE LEARNING
1. Austin Flint, A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Medicine Designed for the Use of Practitioners and Students of Medicine (Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea, 1873, 4th Edition, Carefully Revised). I used the 4th edition as a source while composing this chapter because it best corresponds with the medicine that was taught at Bellevue Hospital Medical College during the years John Harvey Kellogg went to school there. After Flint’s death in 1886, Dr. Frederick P. Henry of the Women’s Medical College of Philadelphia “thoroughly revised” and authored a 7th edition of the textbook, which was published by Lea Brothers of Philadelphia in 1894; see also Austin Flint, A Practical Treatise on the Diagnosis, Pathology and Treatment of Diseases of the Heart (Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1859).
2. Seventeenth Annual Announcement of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, Sessions of 1877–1878, with the Annual Catalogue for 1876–77, p. 3, Lillian and Clarence de la Chapelle Medical Archives, New York University Health Sciences Libraries, New York, N.Y. See also Frederick A. Castle, Second Decennial Catalogue of the Trustees, Faculty, Officers and of the Alumni of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College of the City of New York, 1861–1881 (New York: Alumni Association of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, 1884), pp. 7–51.
3. Seventeenth Annual Announcement of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, Sessions of 1877–1878, with the Annual Catalogue for 1876–77, p. 15.
4. “Bellevue Medical College Matriculation Ticket, 1875–1876,” made out to Ezra W. Homiston and endorsed by Isaac E. Taylor, President, and Austin Flint, Secretary, Collections of the University of Michigan Center for the History of Medicine.
5. The New York City sewage system would not be unified, let alone built upon modern sanitary methods, until the 1870s during the reign of the Tammany Hall boss, William Marcy Tweed. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 930–31, 991; George E. Waring Jr., Street-cleaning and the Disposal of a City’s Wastes (New York: Doubleday and McClure Co., 1897).
6. Much of this section is drawn from my book: Howard Markel, An Anatomy of Addiction: Sigmund Freud, William Halsted and the Miracle Drug Cocaine (New York: Pantheon, 2011), pp. 38–43; H. M. Silver, “Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Fifty Years Ago,” Medical Journal and Record, 1924; 120: 551–57; Robert J. Carlisle, ed., An Account of Bellevue Hospital with a Catalogue of the Medical and Surgical Staff from 1736 to 1894 (New York: Society of the Alumni of Bellevue Hospital, 1893); Page Cooper, The Bellevue Story (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1948); Salvatore R. Cutolo, with Arthur and Barbara Gelb, This Hospital Is My Home: The Story of Bellevue (London: Victor Gollancz, 1956); John Starr, Hospital City: The Story of the Men and Women of Bellevue Hospital (New York: Crown, 1957); David Oshinsky, Bellevue: Three Centuries of Medicare and Mayhem at America’s Most Storied Hospital (New York: Doubleday, 2016).
7. Report of the Special Committee of the Medical Board of the Bellevue Hospital on Erysipelas and Pyaemia (New York: Bellevue Press, Department of Public Charities and Correction of the City of New York, 1872).
8. This quote is from the Old Testament, Book of Amos, 4:12. See “The Bellevue of Today: Sights in the Wards of the Great Charity Hospital,” New York Times, November 23, 1884, p. 6; W. H. Rideing, “Hospital Life in New York,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, July 1878; 57: 171–89; J. W. Roosevelt, “In the Hospital,” Scribner’s Magazine, October 1894; 16(4): 472–86; A. B. Ward, “Hospital Life,” Scribner’s Magazine, June 1888; 3(6): 697–716; A. B. Ward, “The Invalid’s World: The Doctor, the Nurse, the Visitor,” Scribner’s Magazine, January 1889; 5(1): 58–73; H. M. Silver, “Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Fifty Years Ago,” Medical Journal and Record, 1924; 120: 551–57; Helen Campbell, “Hospital Life in New York, Chapter 13,” Darkness and Daylight, or, Lights and Shadows of New York Life: A Pictorial Record (Hartford, CT: Hartford Publishing Co., 1898), pp. 279–304; C. F. Gardiner, “Getting a Medical Education in New York City in the Eighteen-Seventies,” American Bookman, 1955; 8(2): 3–12.
9. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987); David Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise: Hospitals and Health Care in Brooklyn and New York, 1885–1915 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
10. Rosner, A Once Charitable Enterprise; Rosenberg. The Care of Strangers, p. 36; Howard Markel, “When Hospitals Kept Children from Parents,” New York Times, January 1, 2008, p. F6.
11. Austin Flint adopted the use of the binaural (two ears) stethoscope in 1866 but prior to that he preferred Laënnec’s original monoaural model. Howard Markel, “The Stethoscope and the Art of Listening,” New England Journal of Medicine 2006; 354(6): 551–53. See also P. J. Bishop, “Evolution of the Stethoscope,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1980; 73: 448–56; L. T. H. Laënnec, A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest, J. Forbes, translator (London: Underwood, 1821); Henry E. Sigerist, The Great Doctors: A Biographical History of Medicine (New York: W. W. Norton, 1933), pp. 283–90; Sherwin B. Nuland, Doctors: The Biography of Medicine (New York: Vintage, 1995), pp. 200–37; Jacalyn Duffin, To See with a Better Eye: A Life of R. T. H. Laennec (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
12. Samuel D. Gross, Autobiography of Samuel D. Gross with Sketches of His Contemporaries in Two Volumes (Philadelphia: George Barrie, 1887), 2: 161–62.
13. In 1882, for example, after reading the news that the German bacteriologist Robert Koch had proven the tubercle bacillus to be the cause of the “white plague,” Flint ran down the street and up the stairs into the brownstone where William Henry Welch made his home. Welch was a pathologist and bacteriologist at Bellevue who in 1884 moved to Baltimore where he helped found and direct the Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School. Welch was still slumbering in his long nightshirt and nightcap when Dr. Flint was said to have burst through the doors of his bedchamber. Flint shook the younger man awake with the joyful squeals, “I knew it! I knew it!” See Alfred S. Evans, “Austin Flint and His Contributions to Medicine,” Bulletin of the His
tory of Medicine 958; 32: 224–41; quote is from page 238; H. R. M. Landis, “Austin Flint: His Contributions to the Art of Physical Diagnosis and the Study of Tuberculosis,” Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital 1912; 23: 182–86. See also Austin Flint, “Logical Proof of the Contagiousness and Non-Contagiousness of Diseases,” New York Medical Journal 1874; 19: 113–33; Austin Flint, Medicine of the Future: An Address Prepared for the Annual Meeting of the British Medical Association in 1886 (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1886); Austin Flint, Medical Ethics and Etiquette: The Code of Ethics Adopted by the American Medical Association (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1883).
14. Flint, Medicine of the Future.
15. On February 23, 1875, John received a certificate for his taking twenty-five private lessons on physical diagnosis under Flint and Janeway. On April 7, 1875, he received a similar certificate for twenty-five private lessons in microscopy and normal and pathological histology under Janeway and J. W. S. Arnold at the Bellevue Hospital Laboratory. Scrapbook No. 1, Diploma Collection, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M. Dr. Janeway was also a learned scholar of anatomy and materia medica and, from 1875 to 1881, served as New York City’s commissioner of health. See “Edward Gamaliel Janeway,” in Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 9 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1932), pp. 607–8; Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, p. 31.
16. Seventeenth Annual Announcement of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. Sessions of 1877–1878, with the Annual Catalogue for 1876–1877, pp. 6–7, Collections of the University of Michigan Center for the History of Medicine.
17. Schwarz, PhD thesis, pp. 31–32; Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, pp. 31–33.
18. Seventeenth Annual Announcement of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. Sessions of 1877–1878, with the Annual Catalogue for 1876–1877, p. 7, Collections of the University of Michigan Center for the History of Medicine. John Harvey Kellogg also studied under Lewis Sayre, an orthopedic surgeon, early proponent of the germ theory of disease, and advocate of compulsory vaccination; and the pediatrician Job Lewis Smith, who is credited with writing one of the first American textbooks on the diseases of childhood. Lewis A. Sayre, Lectures on Orthopedic Surgery and Diseases of the Joints: Delivered at Bellevue Hospital Medical College During the Winter Session, 1874–1875 (New York: William Wood and Co., 1876); “Lewis A. Sayre,” in Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 16 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935), pp. 403–4; “Job Lewis Smith,” in Dumas Malone, ed., Dictionary of American Biography, Volume 17 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935), pp. 293–94; J. Lewis Smith, A Treatise on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood (Philadelphia: Henry C. Lea, 1869).
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