32. Robert L. Allen, Irving Fisher: A Biography (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993), pp. 87–89; Robert W. Dimand and John Geanakoplos, eds., Celebrating Irving Fisher: The Legacy of a Great Economist (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005); Nathaniel Comfort, The Science of Human Perfection: How Genes Became the Heart of American Medicine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), pp. 32–35, 47–56. For primary sources on the copious Fisher-Kellogg correspondence, see Reels 2, 3, 4, 5, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
33. J. H. Kellogg, “The Eugenics Registry,” Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, pp. 76–87.
34. Irving Fisher, “The Influence of Flesh-Eating on Endurance,” Yale Medical Journal, March 1907 (Reprinted by the Modern Medicine Publishing Co., Battle Creek, Michigan, 1908). For an example of the doctor’s imprecise citing of Fisher’s research, see J. H. Kellogg, The Natural Diet of Man (Battle Creek, MI: The Modern Medicine Publishing Co., 1923), pp. 42–44. A year earlier, Fisher studied the effects of Fletcherizing, or chewing one’s food thoroughly, on endurance. See Irving Fisher, “The Effect of Diet on Endurance, Based on an Experiment in Thorough Mastication, with Nine Healthy Students at Yale University, January to June, 1906, Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1907; 13: 1–46.
35. In 1915, Professor Fisher founded the Life Extension Institute, a nonprofit group that encouraged Americans to maintain their health across the entire life span by means of a “eugenic health registry” to determine who was healthy and who was not. See Irving Fisher and Eugene Lyman Fisk, How to Live: Rules for Healthful Living Based on Modern Science (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1915).
36. Irving Fisher, “Eugenics—Foremost Plan of Human Redemption,” Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1915), pp. 63–69, quote is from page 63; Comfort, The Science of Human Perfection, pp. 29–66.
37. “Eugenics as a Religion,” paper read at Golden Jubilee Celebration of Battle Creek Sanitarium, ten-page manuscript, Sermon 43, ID 743, The Golden Jubilee of the Battle Creek Sanitarium: October 3, 4, and 5, 1916, in Celebration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of its Founding in 1866 (American Philosophical Society, American Eugenics Society, 575.06: Am3), accessed July 27, 2015, at http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/html/eugenics/static/images/791.html. See also Christine Rosen, Preaching Eugenics: Religious Leaders and the American Eugenics Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 92–94; Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, p. 162.
38. The Jukes were a “hill family” studied by the eugenicist Richard Dugdale in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They, along with the Kalikak, the Zeros, and the Nams, were followed to link one’s environment to determining risks of criminality, disease, and poverty. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916); Jonathan P. Spiro, Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant (Burlington: University of Vermont Press, 2009); David Oshinsky, “No Justice for the Week” (review of Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck by Adam Cohen, and Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics and American Economics in the Progressive Era by Thomas C. Leonard), New York Times Book Review, March 20, 2016, pp. 1, 22, 23.
39. For example, on June 12, 1936, Kellogg offered some hostile medical advice to Grant urging him to come to the Sanitarium. Letter from J. H. Kellogg to Madison Grant, June 12, 1936, Reel 4, Images 210–11, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
40. John H. Kellogg, The Living Temple (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health Publishing Company, 1903), p. 450.
41. John H. Kellogg, “Tendencies Toward Race Degeneracy,” New York Medical Journal: A Weekly Review of Medicine (Incorporating the Philadelphia Medical Journal and the Medical News), September 2 1911; 94 (10): 461–467 and September 9, 1911; 94 (11): 526–29 (New York: A.R. Elliott Publishing Co., 1911), quote is from page 461.
42. John H. Kellogg, “Tendencies Toward Race Degeneracy,” New York Medical Journal: A Weekly Review of Medicine (Incorporating the Philadelphia Medical Journal and the Medical News), September 2, 1911; 94(10): 461–67, and September 9, 1911; 94 (11): 526–29, the quote appears on p. 528. For examples of Dr. Kellogg’s lectures on race degeneracy and eugenics, see “Lecture: Race Degeneracy,” April 16, 1911, Reel 12, Images 917–46, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M; “Lecture: Are We Too Much Civilized,” February 23, 1911, Reel 12, Images 657–88, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M; A. S. Bloese Manuscript, chapter on the Race Betterment Foundation, pp. 268–82, Box 1, Folder 14.
43. The State of Michigan has a rather checkered past with respect to parental fitness and laws mandating the forced sterilization of “unfit parents,” including the insane, mentally retarded, and others until 1960. As early as 1897, the state government proposed forced sterilization of criminals and “degenerates,” a law that enjoys the dubious distinction of being one of the first such laws proposed in the nation. While this law was found to be unconstitutional by the Michigan State Supreme Court, later sterilization laws against the “mentally defective” and the insane, among others considered eugenically “unfit,” were enacted in 1913 and 1923, with amendments over the years. See the excellent history by Jeffrey A. Hodges, “Dealing with Degeneracy: Michigan Eugenics in Context” (PhD thesis, Michigan State University, 2001), p. 111. See also Jeffrey A. Hodges, “Euthenics, Eugenics and Compulsory Sterilization in Michigan, 1897–1960” (Master of Arts thesis, Michigan State University, 1995), pp. 151–54. For Dr. Kellogg’s advocacy of these laws and how they conflicted with the issue of personal liberty, see J. H. Kellogg, “Argument for Sterilization of the Unfit,” Good Health, February 1913; 48(2): 106; J. H. Kellogg, “Testing Eugenics,” Good Health, January 1916; 51(1): 7–8; J. H. Kellogg, “The Perils of Personal Liberty,” Good Health, April 1919; 54(4): 191–93. Dr. Kellogg’s conclusion in this last but very revealing piece is that personal liberty does not give one the right to harm society and quotes Galatians 6:7: “Whatever a man soweth, that he shall also reap.” See also Jacob H. Landman, Human Sterilization: The History of the Sexual Sterilization Movement (New York: Macmillan, 1932); Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenical Sterilization in the United States (Chicago: Municipal Court of Chicago, 1932). For a broader study of sterilization laws within the context of the famous U.S. Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell, in which Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. infamously concluded in the majority opinion holding up the legality of such laws, “Three generations of imbeciles are enough,” see Paul Lombardo, Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010); Adam Cohen, Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New York: Penguin, 2016).
44. See Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg and the Religion of Biologic Living, p. 158. This move finalized Dr. Kellogg’s shift from funding medical missionary work toward the cause of race betterment. On July 22, 1914, Dr. Kellogg held a meeting of the American Missionary Medical Board to make this change and the newly reconstituted charity began meeting officially as the Race Betterment Foundation on October 3, 1914. Dr. Kellogg informed the board that the name change was approved by the State of Michigan on February 21, 1916. See “Race Betterment Foundation, Articles of Association Filed with the State of Michigan, changing the name of the American Medical Missionary Board to the Race Betterment Foundation,” January 4, 1917, Collection 234, Box 2, File 4; and “Instrument of Trust, Race Betterment Foundation to J. H. Kellogg et al., Trustee, December 11, 1923,” Collection 234, Box 2, File 1–1, Adventist Research Center. See also J. H. Kellogg, “Finis,” Medical Missionary, 1914; 23(12): 354; J. H. Kellogg, “The Race Betterment Foundation,
” Good Health, December 1914, 49(12): 609–10.
45. E. F. Robbins, ed., Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1914), p. 22. The Latin phrase is from Juvenal’s Satires, 10: 356.
46. See J. H. Kellogg, “Needed—A New Human Race,” in E. F. Robbins, ed., Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1914 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1914), pp. 431–50.
47. Jacob A. Riis’s lecture was entitled “The Bad Boy,” in ibid., pp. 241–50. Shortly after leaving the dais, he spoke to Paul Popenoe, who quoted Riis in his May 1915 editorial for the Journal of Heredity. Paul Popenoe, “From the Editor: Nature or Nurture?: Actual Improvement of the Race Impossible Except Through Heredity—Facts on Which the Eugenicist Bases His Faith—The Attitude of Eugenics Toward Social Problem,” Journal of Heredity, 1915; 6(5): 227–40. Riis’s quote about heredity is on p. 227. Popenoe disagreed with Riis and stated that “heredity is not only much stronger than any single factor of the environment, in producing important human differences, but is stronger than any possible number of them put together.” (Italics are Popenoe’s emphasis and appear on p. 238.) For superb and tempered accounts of Popenoe’s work on eugenics, see Wendy Kline, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality, and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Molly Ladd-Taylor, “Eugenics, Sterilization and Modern Marriage in the U.S.A.: The Strange Career of Paul Popenoe,” Gender and History, 2001; 13(2): 298–327.
48. Washington was friendly with Dr. Kellogg and first met him as a Sanitarium patient in 1910, a visit that was enthusiastically announced in the Sanitarium’s magazine for patients and former patients, The Battle Creek Idea. Another visit, including Washington’s delivery of a major lecture, occurred a year later in 1911. “News and Personals,” Battle Creek Idea, Volume 4, No. 14, March 10, 1911; 4(14): 8; “News and Personals,” Battle Creek Idea, March 17, 1911; 4(15): 8; “News and Personals,” Battle Creek Idea, March 24, 1911; 4(16): 8; “The Progress of a Race,” Battle Creek Idea, March 24, 1911; 4(16): 1–5; Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, p. 145.
49. Booker T. Washington, “The Negro Race,” in Robbins, ed., Proceedings of the First National Conference on Race Betterment, January 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1914, pp. 410–20.
50. Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, p. 145; Schwarz, PhD thesis, p. 340.
51. J. H. Kellogg, Plain Facts for Young and Old (Burlington, Iowa: Senger and Condit, 1881), p. 164. This same passage appears on p. 151 of the 1887 Senger and Condit edition as well as on p. 182 in the 1910 reprint edition under the doctor’s imprimatur, the Modern Medicine Publishing Company of Battle Creek, Michigan.
52. J. H. Kellogg, The Ladies’ Guide in Health and Disease: Girlhood, Maidenhood, Wifehood, Motherhood (Des Moines, Iowa: W. D. Condit and Co, 1883), p. 193. This book went through successive reprint editions under the doctor’s imprimatur, the Modern Medicine Publishing Company of Battle Creek, Michigan, in 1896 and 1902, with the sentence about the Negro’s inferiority unchanged and intact, on the same page 193. His discourse on heredity, pedigrees, eugenics, euthenics, the importance of good child rearing, race deterioration, and illustrations of the adages “like father, like son” and “like mother, like daughter” appear on pp. 383–96.
53. Unsigned piece, “The Degeneration of the Negro,” Good Health, October 1908; 43(10): 588. See also Reynold Spaeth, “Eugenic Aspects of the Negro,” Good Health, October 1919; 54(10): pp. 590–93; Interview with William Sadler, by Richard Schwarz, Card VII-H, B9, F11, Sadler, Richard Schwarz Collection, Center for Adventists Research.
54. J. H. Kellogg, “Germany’s Futile Effort at Race Betterment,” Good Health, October 1935; 71(10): 307.
55. In 1940, Kellogg worried to his British friend, Sir Arbuthnot Lane, about what “that monster, Hitler, is going to try to do to your lovely island, which for so many years has held up the banner of our advancing Christian civilization.” J. H. Kellogg to Arbuthnot Lane, July 20, 1040, Reel 5, Images 1220–21, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
56. J. H. Kellogg, “Japs Didn’t Require Meat,” Good Health, October 1908; 43(10): 558; Wilson, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, pp. 142, 213.
57. There are several superb studies of Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915, including William Lipsky, San Francisco’s Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Images of America) (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2005); Laura A. Ackley, San Francisco’s Jewel City: The Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915 (Berkeley: Heyday, 2014), discusses the Rare Betterment Foundation exhibit on pp. 167–68; Donna Ewald and Peter Clute, San Francisco Invites the World: The Panama-Pacific International Exposition of 1915 (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1991), discusses the Palace of Education on pp. 72–73; Abigail M. Markwyn, Empress San Francisco: The Pacific Rim, the Great West and California at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014), discusses the role the RBF played in the fair on pp. 24, 56–57.
58. David Starr Jordan, “Eugenics and War,” in Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1915), pp. 12–26.
59. Luther Burbank, “Evolution and Variation with the Fundamental Significance of Sex,” in ibid., pp. 45–51.
60. Frederick L. Hoffman, “Statistics of Race Betterment,” pp. 27–33; A. J. Reed, “Discussion; Longevity vs. Life Expectancy” (with comments by J. H. Kellogg, I. Fisher, C. F. Ballard), pp. 34–44, both in ibid. For Hoffman’s views on African Americans and disease, see Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro. Publications of the American Economics Association, Volume 11, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, pp. 1–329 (New York: Published for the American Economics Association by the Macmillan Company, 1896).
61. “The Playground Pentathalon,” in Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1915), pp. 143–44.
62. “Morality Masque,” in ibid., pp. 138–43. A synopsis of this play is included in the proceedings. For John’s short summation of the play, see J. H. Kellogg, “Michigan: National Conference on Race Betterment. American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality,” Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, November 10–12, 1915 (Baltimore: Franklin Printing Co., 1916), p. 398.
63. J. H. Kellogg, “The Eugenics Registry,” in Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1915), pp. 76–87, 144; Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, p. 222.
64. “The Race Betterment Exhibit,” Official Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Race Betterment. August 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1915. Held in San Francisco, CA in Connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1915), p. 145.
65. Ibid.
66. A. S. Bloese Manuscript, p. 275, Box 1, Folder 14.
67. John H. Kellogg, Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2–6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), p. ii.
68. J. H. Kellogg, “The Responsibilities of Those Who Are Fit,” Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2–6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), pp. 118–19; Steven Selden, “Transforming Better Babies into Fitter Families: Archival Resources and the American Eugenics Movement, 1908–1930,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 2005; 149(2): 199–225.
69. William L. Laurence, “Sees a Super-Race Evol
ved by Science: Dr. C. C. Little Tells Ithacans Laws to Weed Out Misfits Are ‘Just Around the Corner.’ Heredity an Iron Law. Knowledge of It Must Be Used for Nation’s Good, He Says—Geneticists Gather for Congress,” New York Times, August 25, 1932, p. 40; “Educators from Many Parts of the Country Coming…President Little of the University of Michigan Selected Chair of the Conference,” Battle Creek Enquirer, November 18, 1927, p. 1, Reel 33, Images 409–10, J. H. Kellogg Papers, U-M.
70. Congressman Albert Johnson (R-WA), “The Menace of the Melting Pot,” Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2–6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), 200–201; Howard Markel et al., “The Foreignness of Germs: The Persistent Association of Immigrants and Disease in American Society,” The Milbank Quarterly, 2002; 80(4): 757–88.
71. Fielding H. Yost, “Man Building,” Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2–6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), pp. 715–20.
72. Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, p. 102.
73. At the outbreak of World War II, he returned to Paris and spent his last years as the regent of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains), created by the pro-Axis Vichy regime in 1941. There, Carrel helped implement a menu of eugenics and health policies. Alexis Carrel, “The Immortality of Animal Tissues and Its Significance,” Proceedings of the Third Race Betterment Conference, January 2–6, 1928 (Battle Creek, MI: Race Betterment Foundation, 1928), pp. 309–14; David M. Friedman, The Immortalists: Charles Lindbergh, Dr. Alexis Carrel and Their Daring Quest to Live Forever (New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), pp. 46, 86–94; Alexis Carrel, Man, the Unknown (West Drayton, Middlesex, England, and New York: Pelican, 1945; originally published by Harper in 1935), p. 290.
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