Haiti
Page 42
6. Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 32–33; Job B. Clement, “History of Education in Haiti: 1804–1915,” Revista de Historia de América, no. 88 (December 1979): 39.
7. Chris Dixon, African America and Haiti: Emigration and Black Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), 39–46.
8. Ibid., 47; Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 59.
9. Victor Schoelcher, Colonies étrangères et Haïti: Résultats de l’émancipation anglaise, vol. 2 (Paris: Pagnerre, 1843), 180–81.
10. Ibid., 2:197–207; Benoît Joachim, Les racines du sous développement en Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1979), 104; Clement, “History of Education in Haiti,” 38–39.
11. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, M. Roosevelt, président des États-Unis et la république d’Haïti (Paris: F. Pichon et Durand-Auzias, 1905), 339–40.
12. Jean-François Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848: Le rêve brisé (Paris: Kharthala, 2008).
13. Ibid., 111–12, 121–22.
14. Ibid., 108–9.
15. Ibid., 109, 328–29.
16. Ibid., 111–12.
17. Ibid., 113–14.
18. Ibid., 118.
19. François Blancpain, Un siècle de relations financières entre Haïti et la France (1825–1922) (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 66; Brière, Haïti et la France, 156.
20. Brière, Haïti et la France, 117.
21. Blancpain, Un siècle, 66–67.
22. Brière, Haïti et la France, 133.
23. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:279–80; Gusti-Klara Gaillard, L’expérience haïtienne de la dette extérieure; ou, une production caféière pillée: 1875–1915 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1990).
24. On the idea of the “counter-plantation” system, see Jean Casimir, La culture opprimée (Delmas, Haïti: Lakay, 2001); on métayage see Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), esp. 91.
25. Mimi Sheller, Democracy After Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000), 96–97; Blancpain, Un siècle, 63–64; Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy, 95–96.
26. Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy, 96.
27. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 74–75.
28. Rémy Bastien, Le paysan haïtien et sa famille: Vallée de Marbial (Paris: Kharthala, 1985), 150–54.
29. Ibid., 21–22.
30. Gérard Barthélemy, L’univers rural haïtien: Le pays en dehors (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1990), 28.
31. Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 56.
32. Barthélemy, L’univers, 38; Leslie François Manigat, La révolution de 1843: Essai d’analyse historique d’une conjoncture de crise, Les cahiers du CHUDAC vol. 1, no. 5 and 6 (Port-au-Prince, 1997), 22; Trouillot, Haiti, 75.
33. The most detailed study of the complex patterns of land ownership in Haiti is Drexel G. Woodson, “Tout Mounn Se Mounn, Men Tout Mounn Pa Menm: Microlevel Sociocultural Aspects of Land Tenure in a Northern Haitian Locality” (Ph.D. dissertation: Johns Hopkins University, 1990).
34. Barthélemy, L’univers, 31; Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 59.
35. Bastien, Paysan haïtien, 62–66; Barthélemy, L’univers, 33.
36. Barthélemy, L’univers, 31. An excellent exploration of the relationships to ancestors in Haitian Vodou is provided in Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
37. Anglade’s atlas remains the classic work of historical geography on Haiti: Georges Anglade, Atlas critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982), notes p. 37. For an excellent study of merchant women in Jamaica see Gina A. Ulysse, Downtown Ladies: Informal Commercial Importers, a Haitian Anthropologist, and Self-Making in Jamaica (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).
38. On different groups of immigrants, see Eugène Aubin, En Haïti: Planteurs d’autrefois, nègres d’aujourd’hui (Paris: A. Colin, 1910), xxii.
39. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:171.
40. Ibid., 2:261, 266.
41. Ibid., 2:243–244.
42. Louis-Joseph Janvier, La république d’Haïti et ses visiteurs (1840–1882) (Paris: Mappon et Flammarion, 1883), 23; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:215.
43. Trouillot, Haiti, 59; Alex Dupuy describes this process in detail and dubs it a “stalemate” in Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), chap. 4.
44. Trouillot, Haiti, 60.
45. Ibid., 36–38. For an overview of the agricultural and environmental history of coffee in Haiti, see Roger Michel, L’espace caféier en Haïti (Genève: IUED, 2005), chap. 1. On the history of coffee during colonial times, see Stewart R. King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-revolutionary Saint Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007).
46. Trouillot, Haiti, 71.
47. Ibid., 61; Blancpain, Un siècle, 17.
48. For an excellent analysis of this process that argues that it created a durable “political habitus” in Haiti, see Robert Fatton Jr., The Roots of Haitian Despotism (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), 7.
49. Sheller, Democracy, 113–14; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 42–43; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:182–83.
50. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:71.
51. Ibid; Sheller, Democracy, 115–17; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 12; Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:184–89. The 1838 address is printed in full in F. E. Dubois, Précis historique de la révolution haïtienne de 1843 (Paris: Bourdier, 1866), 11–17. Dubois, one of the members of the opposition, provides a rich firsthand account of the political activism of the period.
52. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:180.
53. Sheller, Democracy, 118–19; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 12–14.
54. Schoelcher, Colonies, 2:268–70; Sheller, Democracy, 119–20.
55. Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 25; Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, 33.
56. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:79–81.
57. Sheller, Democracy, 122–25; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:83–85.
58. Sheller, Democracy, 126–27; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 28.
59. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:91.
60. Ibid., 1:93–94.
61. Ibid., 1:88–90; Sheller, Democracy, 133.
62. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:102–3.
63. Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 29.
64. Maxime Reybaud, L’empereur Soulouque et son empire (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1860), 111–13; Sheller, Democracy, 135–36.
65. Sheller, Democracy, 137; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:169–70; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 167, 174–76.
66. Sheller, Democracy, 132–39; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 171–72; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:170; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 39.
67. Reybaud, Soulouque; Sheller, Democracy, 136–39; Nicholls, Haiti in Caribbean Context, 176.
68. Sheller, Democracy, 136–37; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:105–6.
69. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:109–10; Sheller, Democracy, 138; Clive Cheesman and Marie-Lucie Vendrynes, eds., The Armorial of Haiti: Symbols of Nobility in the Reign of Henry Christophe (London: College of Arms, 2007), 50.
70. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:119–20.
71. Sheller, Democracy, 138; Moïse, Constitutions, 1:111–12.
72. Leslie François Manigat, “La dichotomie Villes-Campagnes en Haïti à l’époque de la société traditionelle épanouie (1838–1896),” in Éventail d’histoire vivante d’Haïti, v
ol. 2, Collection du CHUDAC (Port-au-Prince: CHUDAC, 2002), 78.
73. Sheller, Democracy, 135–36; Manigat, La révolution de 1843, 44; Blancpain, Un siècle, 189.
4: THE SACRIFICE
1. John E. Baur, “The Presidency of Nicolas Geffrard of Haiti,” The Americas 10, no. 4 (April 1954): 438–39; Matthew J. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture and the American Civil War: The Promise and Peril of a Second Haitian Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 53–54.
2. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 51–53, 204n85.
3. Ibid., 48, 54.
4. Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Montréal: Saint-Joseph, 1955), 23–26.
5. Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004), 268; Rayford Whittingham Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 173–74; David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti, rev. ed. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 37.
6. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 173.
7. Turnier, Marché, 121–136.
8. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 187, 197–98, 214–15.
9. Ibid., 195–96, 200.
10. Ibid., 207–9.
11. Ibid., 214.
12. Ibid., 223–27.
13. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 73. Louverture was celebrated by contemporaries such as William Wordsworth in a poem originally published in the Morning Post, reprinted in the online version of William Wordsworth, The Complete Poetical Works (London: Macmillan, 1888), http://www.bartleby.com/br/145.html, as well as in the widely read account of Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti (London: J. Cundee, 1805). In the 1850s his memoirs were published in France by Joseph Saint-Remy, ed., Mémoires du général Toussaint-Louverture, écrits par lui-même, pouvant servir à l’histoire de sa vie (Paris: Pagnerre, 1853), and translated into English in John Relly Beard, Toussaint L’Ouverture: A Biography and Autobiography (Boston: J. Redpath, 1863).
14. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 233–34.
15. Laënnec Hurbon, Religions et lien social: L’église et l’état moderne en Haïti (Paris: Cerf, 2004), 136–41; Philippe Delisle, Le catholicisme en Haïti au XIXe siècle (Paris: Kharthala, 2003), 15, 20. The most detailed study of the negotiations with the papacy is Adolphe Cabon, Notes sur l’histoire religieuse d’Haïti de la révolution au concordat (1789–1860) (Port-au-Prince: Petit Séminaire Collège Saint-Martial, 1933).
16. Hurbon, Religions, 145–50; Delisle, Catholicisme, 15–16, 33; Micial M. Nérestant, Religions et politique en Haïti (1804–1990) (Paris: Karthala, 1994), 69–75.
17. Delisle, Catholicisme, 15–16; Thomas F. O’Connor and Joseph Bp, “Joseph Rosati, C. M., Apostolic Delegate to Haiti, 1842, Two Letters to Bishop John Hughes,” The Americas 1, no. 4 (April 1945): 492–93.
18. Delisle, Catholicisme, 20; Hurbon, Religions, 139–41.
19. Hurbon, Religions, 159; Murdo J. Macleod, “The Soulouque Regime in Haiti, 1847–1859: A Reevaluation,” Caribbean Studies 10, no. 3 (October 1970): 35–48, quotes p. 47. For negative depictions of Soulouque, see Maxime Reybaud, L’empereur Soulouque et son empire (Paris: Michel Lévy frères, 1860), and Cham [pseud.], Soulouque et sa cour: Caricatures (Paris: Au Bureau du Journal Le Charivari, 1850).
20. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 35–36; Hurbon, Religions, 141.
21. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 36, 44; Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 10.
22. Dayan, Haiti, 12; Spenser St. John, Hayti; or, The Black Republic (New York: Scribner & Welford, 1889), 187.
23. Millery Polyné, From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti and Pan Americanism, 1870–1964 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 29. On Panama, see Aims McGuinness, Path of Empire: Panama and the California Gold Rush (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), and David G. McCullough, The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977).
24. Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861, 2nd ed. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002), 5–6.
25. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 249–50.
26. Ibid., 249–55.
27. Macleod, “Soulouque,” 46; Rayford W. Logan, Haiti and the Dominican Republic (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 33–42.
28. Leslie François Manigat, “L’Essentiel sur la question de la navase,” in Éventail d’histoire vivante d’Haïti, vol. 2, Collection du CHUDAC (Port-au-Prince: CHUDAC, 2002), 224–41. See also Ted Widmer, “Little America,” New York Times, June 30, 2007.
29. Ibid. See also Widmer, “Little America.”
30. Manigat, “Navase.”
31. Ibid., 236–41.
32. Clavin, Toussaint Louverture, 2.
33. Ibid., 3, 58–59.
34. Ibid., chap. 3.
35. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 293–302.
36. Ibid., 297–98.
37. Ibid., 303–5.
38. J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 228–38; David M. Dean, Defender of the Race: James Theodore Holly, Black Nationalist and Bishop (Newton Center, Mass.: Lambeth Press, 1979), 33–38; Chris Dixon, African America and Haiti: Emigration and Black Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), chap. 4 and p. 186.
39. Dean, Defender, 18, 36–38, 41; Dixon, African America and Haiti, 187–90; Howard Holman Bell, ed., Black Separatism and the Caribbean, 1860 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970).
40. Dean, Defender, 44, 67, 96; Dixon, African America and Haiti, 190.
41. Dean, Defender, chaps. 5 and 6, esp. pp. 66–71.
42. Delisle, Catholicisme, 20–22; Nérestant, Religions et politique en Haïti (1804–1990), 105–21.
43. Delisle, Catholicisme, 39–43.
44. Ibid., 33, 44–48. For a detailed study of the plaçage system, see Serge-Henri Vieux, Le plaçage, droit coutumier et famille en Haïti (Paris: Publisud, 1989).
45. Delisle, Catholicisme, 49–70; Rayford W. Logan, “Education in Haiti,” Journal of Negro History 15, no. 4 (October 1930): 436–37; Job B. Clement, “History of Education in Haiti: 1804–1915,” Revista de Historia de América, no. 88 (December 1979): 51–52.
46. Delisle, Catholicisme, 61–67.
47. Philippe Delisle, Catholicisme, 22.
48. Laënnec Hurbon, Le barbare imaginaire (Paris: Cerf, 1988), 112–14; Kate Ramsey, “Prohibition, Persecution, Performance: Anthropology and the Penalization of Vodou in Mid-20th-Century,” Gradhiva 1 (2005): 165n2.
49. Delisle, Catholicisme, 83–84; Hurbon, Religions, 145, 153.
50. On the issue of witchcraft within Vodou, see Hurbon, Barbare. The best study of secret societies in contemporary Haiti is Rachel Beauvoir-Dominique, Savalou E (Havana: Casa de las Americas, 2003); see also Pierre Pluchon, Vaudou, sorciers, empoisonneurs: De Saint-Domingue à Haïti (Paris: Karthala, 1987).
51. St. John, Hayti, 216.
52. Ibid., 215–18.
53. Hurbon, Barbare, 116–17; St. John, Hayti, 218.
54. St. John, Hayti, 208.
55. Ibid., 192–208.
56. Ibid., 222; Delisle, Catholicisme, 88–90.
57. Samuel Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present: With a Glance at Hayti (New York: Harper & Bros., 1873), 419.
5: LOOKING NORTH
1. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, M. Roosevelt, président des États-Unis et la république d’Haïti (Paris: F. Pichon et Durand-Auzias, 1905), 463.
2. Joseph-Anténor Firmin, Lettres de Saint-Thomas: Études sociologiques, historiques et littéraires (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Centrale, 1976), 91–92; Firmin, Roosevelt, 468–69.
3. Firmin, Roosevelt, 478, 480.
4. Ibid., 131; Watson
Denis, “Les 100 ans de Monsieur Roosevelt et Haïti,” Revue de la société haïtienne d’histoire et de géographie 81è année, no. 226 (September 2006): 17–18.
5. Firmin, Roosevelt, 477, 480.
6. Jean Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin (Port-au-Prince: Séminaire Adventiste, 1964), 14–17; J. C. Dorsainvil, Manuel d’histoire d’Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1924), 239–42; Rayford Whittingham Logan, The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 319.
7. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 320–21; Alain Turnier, Les États-Unis et le marché haïtien (Montréal: Saint-Joseph, 1955), 198–201.
8. Logan, Diplomatic Relations, 320–21; Ludwell Lee Montague, Haiti and the United States, 1714–1938 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940), 100–101.
9. Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: La faillite des classes dirigeantes (1804–1915), vol. 1 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), chap. 7; Dorsainvil, Histoire d’Haïti, 243–51; Price-Mars, Anténor Firmin, 14–23; Turnier, Marché, 202.
10. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:272.
11. Eugène Aubin, En Haïti: Planteurs d’autrefois, nègres d’aujourd’hui (Paris: A. Colin, 1910), 14–15.
12. Alain Turnier, Avec Mérisier Jeannis: Une tranche de vie jacmélienne et nationale (Port-au-Prince: Le Natal, 1982), 23–24. Turnier’s book provides a detailed biography of one general who rose from relative poverty as a peasant to become a significant regional power holder.
13. For the clearest analysis of the regional system of Haiti in the nineteenth century, see Georges Anglade, Atlas Critique d’Haïti (Montréal: Groupe d’Études et de Recherches Critiques d’Espace, UQAM, 1982).
14. Moïse, Constitutions, 1:176, 261, 264–65.
15. Kethly Millet, Les paysans haïtiens et l’occupation américaine d’Haïti, 1915–1930 (La Salle, Québec: Collectif Paroles, 1978), 10.