Haiti

32. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 156, 190; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:376; Trouillot, Haiti, 144–45; Fatton, Roots, 107; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 132; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 557–58.

  33. Bellegarde-Smith, Shadow, 86; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 553; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:396; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 147.

  34. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:396; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 133; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 554, 560; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 159.

  35. Trouillot, Haiti, 179; Vieux-Chauvet, Love, Anger, Madness.

  36. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 607; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 187, 198. Most of Duvalier’s speeches and writings are collected in Duvalier, Oeuvres essentielles.

  37. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 183–84; Averill, Hunter, 74–75; Trouillot, Haiti, 194.

  38. Fatton, Roots, 102–103; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 561, 574–75; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:413; Paul Christopher Johnson, “Secretism and the Apotheosis of Duvalier,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 74, no. 2 (2006): 420.

  39. Laënnec Hurbon, Religions et lien social: L’église et l’état moderne en Haïti (Paris: Cerf, 2004), 222–23; Fatton, Roots, 102; Averill, Hunter, 74.

  40. Hurbon, Religions, 220–26; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 191.

  41. Hurbon, Religions, 222–26; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:391–94; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 234; Trouillot, Haiti, 194; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 135.

  42. Smith, Red and Black, 172–85; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 99–100; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 125–26.

  43. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:366–368; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 123, 132; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 99–100, 126–27, 136–37, 226–27; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 567.

  44. Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 184; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:400–401; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 566–67, 580; Robert David Johnson, “Constitutionalism Abroad and at Home: The United States Senate and the Alliance for Progress, 1961–1967,” International History Review 21, no. 2 (June 1, 1999): 418; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 133.

  45. Johnson, “Constitutionalism Abroad and at Home,” 421–22.

  46. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 133, 242; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 186–87; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 606.

  47. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 564–67.

  48. Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 180; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 202, 224, 240. For Bosch’s own account of his time as president, see Juan Bosch, The Unfinished Experiment: Democracy in the Dominican Republic (New York: Praeger, 1965). On relations with the United States, see Bernardo Vega, Kennedy y Bosch: Aporte al Estudio de las Relaciones Internacionales del Gobierno Constitucional de 1963 (Santo Domingo: Fundación Cultural Dominicana, 1993).

  49. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:402–3; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 194–95, 202–3.

  50. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 204–9; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:403.

  51. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 210–14, 223–24, 233.

  52. Ibid., 216–17, 223.

  53. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 221–22, 237; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 578–79.

  54. Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 244–45.

  55. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 579–80; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 240, 289–99; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 45–46. On the coup in the Dominican Republic and its effects, see Piero Gleijeses, The Dominican Crisis: The 1965 Constitutionalist Revolt and American Intervention (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).

  56. Robert Heinl was the head of the marine mission in Haiti starting in 1958 but came into conflict with Duvalier and was withdrawn by the United States several years later. Upon his return to the United States, he cowrote a long history of Haiti that presented a damning portrait of the dictator. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 579–81; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 45–48; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 289–99, 300–312; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 180, 190. The most detailed account of the repression in Jérémie is Albert D. Chassagne, Bain de sang en Haïti: Les macoutes opèrent à Jérémie, 2nd ed. (n.p.: 1977).

  57. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 582; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 311–12.

  58. Alexander Wolff, “The Hero Who Vanished,” Sports Illustrated, March 8, 2010. For documentation on abuses in the prison, see Patrick Lemoine, Fort-Dimanche, Fort–La Mort, 2nd ed. (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Regain, 1996).

  59. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:405–11; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 280–82; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 555, 583.

  60. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 271, 283; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:412–13; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53; Averill, Hunter, 8–9.

  61. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 582–83; Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier, 155, 234–35; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:409; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 52–53.

  62. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583.

  63. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 588; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 320, 328–31; Trouillot, Haiti, 192.

  64. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 583; Polyné, Douglass to Duvalier, 185; Bellegarde-Smith, Breached Citadel, 139. Duvalier harshly attacked Graham Greene, for instance, whose popular novel The Comedians presented a dark portrait of life in Haiti. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 51.

  65. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:398; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53–54; Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1989), 164–65; Diederich and Burt, Papa Doc, 320–21; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 570.

  66. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54; Simon M. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti: The Drama of Survival (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988), 50.

  67. Jean Dominique, “La fin du marronage haïtien: Éléments pour une étude des mouvements de contestation populaire en Haïti,” Collectif Paroles 32 (December 1985): 39–46.

  68. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53, 55; Averill, Hunter, 8–9, 94–97; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 194–95.

  69. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54–55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 594, 596, 616.

  70. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:415–19; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 56–57; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 598.

  71. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:416; Ferguson, Duvaliers, 53, 55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 612.

  72. The most detailed account of Jean-Claude Duvalier’s presidency to date is Bernard Diederich, L’Héritier (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 2011).

  73. Ferguson, Duvaliers, 54–55; Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 594, 596, 616; Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 39, 43, 67; Cary Hector, “Des ‘prises de démocratie’ de la société civile au renouvellement des pratiques de pouvoir (1975–1983),” Collectif Paroles 32 (December 1985): 12.

  74. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 22–23; Plummer, Haiti and the United States, 195.

  75. Fritz Deshommes, Haïti: La nation écartelée (Port-au-Prince: Éditions Cahiers Universitaires, 2006), 65–69; Bernard Diederich, “Swine Fever Ironies,” Caribbean Review 14:1 (1985): 16–17, 41.

  76. Deshommes, Haïti, 65–70; Amy Wilentz, The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), 157.

  77. Fass, Political Economy in Haiti, 48–49.

  78. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 586–87; Averill, Hunter, 110–11. For rich portraits of aspects of life in the Haitian diaspora, see Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), and Nina Glick Schiller and Georges Eugene Fouron, Georges Woke Up Laughing: Long-Distance Nationalism and the Search for Home (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001). On Catholic institutions a
nd the diaspora, see Regine O. Jackson, “After the Exodus: The New Catholics in Boston’s Old Ethnic Neighborhoods,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 17, no. 2 (July 1, 2007): 191–212, and Margarita A. Mooney, Faith Makes Us Live: Surviving and Thriving in the Haitian Diaspora (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

  79. Jean-Pierre Jean, “The Tenth Department,” NACLA Report on the Americas, 1994. On family and migration, see Karen E. Richman, Migration and Vodou (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005). Edwidge Danticat told the story about the burials during a presentation at Duke University on February 15, 2011; she tells her family’s story in the searing memoir Brother, I’m Dying, 1st ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).

  80. Heinl, Heinl, and Heinl, Written in Blood, 592.

  81. For excellent overviews of these changes, see Hector, “Prises de démocratie”; Moïse, Constitutions, 2:420–25; and Dominique, “Fin du marronage.” For the Castro masks, see Bruce Chatwin, Under the Sun: The Letters of Bruce Chatwin, 1st ed. (New York: Viking, 2011), 312.

  82. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:425–30; Hector, “Prises de démocratie”; Dominique, “Fin du marronage”; Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, 2nd ed. (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2003); Robert Lawless, Haiti’s Bad Press (Rochester, Vt.: Schenkman Books, 1992); Laurent Dubois, “L’accueil des réfugiés haïtiens aux États-Unis,” Hommes et Migrations 1213 (June 1998): 47–59; Richman, Migration and Vodou.

  83. Dominique, “Fin du marronage”; Conférence épiscopale d’Haïti, Présence de l’église en Haïti: Messages et documents de l’épiscopat, 1980–1988 (Paris: Éditions S.O.S., 1988); Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Aristide: An Autobiography (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993); Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2007), 23.

  84. Elizabeth Abbott, Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988), 293–94.

  85. Martin-Luc Bonnardot and Gilles Danroc, eds., La chute de la maison Duvalier: Textes pour l’histoire (Paris: Karthala, 1989), 39, 55, 63; Abbott, Haiti, 295–96.

  86. David Nicholls, “Haiti: The Rise and Fall of Duvalierism,” Third World Quarterly 8, no. 4 (October 1, 1986): 1239–52; Bonnardot and Danroc, La chute de la maison Duvalier, 55; Hallward, Damming the Flood, 22; Abbott, Haiti, 299; Averill, Hunter, 159.

  87. Abbott, Haiti, 302 and chap. 13; Trouillot, Haiti, chap. 7.

  88. Bonnardot and Danroc, La chute de la maison Duvalier, 55, 63; Abbott, Haiti, 299.

  EPILOGUE

  1. Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2007), xxxv. For descriptions of events in 1986, see Amy Wilentz, The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), and Gage Averill, A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), chap. 8. On the constitution, see Claude Moïse, Constitutions et luttes de pouvoir en Haïti, 1804–1987: De l’occupation étrangère à la dictature macoute (1915–1987), vol. 2 (Montréal: Éditions du CIDIHCA, 1988), 463–66. A complete list of members of the Constituent Assembly is available at http://www.haiti-reference.com/histoire/notables/assemb_const87.php (consulted April 14, 2011).

  2. See the detailed analysis of the constitution in Moïse, Constitutions, 2:463–80, which reprints the document on pp. 495–548.

  3. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti, State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), 221; Wilentz, Rainy Season, 113; Averill, Hunter, 171; Hallward, Damming the Flood, xxxv.

  4. Moïse, Constitutions, 2:463; Trouillot, Haiti, chaps. 7 and 8; Averill, Hunter, 173–75. The most detailed account of Aristide during this period is Wilentz, Rainy Season.

  5. Averill, Hunter, 185–90; Robert Fatton Jr., Haiti’s Predatory Republic: The Unending Transition to Democracy (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 77–80.

  6. Averill, Hunter, 185–93, 196. For a detailed analysis of the political suppression of this period, and the use of rape as a tool by the military, see Erica Caple James, Democratic Insecurities: Violence, Trauma, and Intervention in Haiti (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).

  7. Philippe R. Girard, Clinton in Haiti: The 1994 U.S. Invasion of Haiti (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Bob Shacochis, The Immaculate Invasion (New York: Viking, 1999); Stan Goff, Hideous Dream: A Soldier’s Memoir of the U.S. Invasion of Haiti, 1st ed. (New York: Soft Skull Press, 2000).

  8. The most detailed studies of this period are Wiener Kerns Fleurimond, Haïti de la crise à l’occupation: Histoire d’un chaos, 2000–2004 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009); Alex Dupuy, The Prophet and Power: Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the International Community, and Haiti (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007); and Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic, chap. 6.

  9. The most detailed political analyses of Aristide’s regime are Dupuy, Prophet and Power, and Fatton, Haiti’s Predatory Republic. A powerful critique of U.S. policy in recent years is Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti, 2nd ed. (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2003). Two works that defend Aristide and insist that foreign governments purposely undermined his regime are Randall Robinson, An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, from Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2007), and Hallward, Damming the Flood.

  10. Edwidge Danticat made this comment during a lecture at Duke University on February 15, 2011.

  11. Arnaud Robert, “Haïti est la preuve de l’échec de l’aide internationale,” interview with Ricardo Seitenfus, Le Temps, December 21, 2010; Steven Stoll, “Toward a Second Haitian Revolution,” Harper’s Magazine, April 2010.

  12. Robert, “Haïti est la preuve.” For a lucid and illuminating analysis of these issues, see Paul Farmer’s recent Haiti After the Earthquake (New York: Public Affairs, 2011).

  13. Robert, “Haïti est la preuve.”

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  This book was conceived in the immediate aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti, a time of shock, mourning, and mutual support. I offer it up in the hope both that it will help illuminate the country’s present and spur further debate and research about Haiti’s history. In these pages I draw on the work of a remarkable group of scholars, many of whom I am deeply fortunate to have as both colleagues and friends.

  Chief among them is Jean Casimir, whom I first met in 2004, and who had just arrived to spend a semester as a Mellon Visiting Professor at Duke at the beginning of January 2010. The first meeting of a class we taught together on twentieth-century Haiti took place just a few days after the disaster. Our conversations in class and outside of it, our work together on a short essay called “Reckoning in Haiti” for an SSRC forum, and his ability to channel the long history of Haiti into a meaningful interpretation of the present all deeply shaped the structure and analysis of this book.

  I have also been delighted to work with my Duke colleague Deborah Jenson, with whom in September 2010 I began codirecting a Humanities Laboratory focused on Haiti, thanks to the imagination and generosity of Ian Baucom, director of the Franklin Humanities Center. I have learned much from her work, and collaborating with her on a range of Haiti-related projects has been an amazing experience. Working with the other faculty members of the Haiti Lab—Haitian linguist Jacques Pierre, Global Health faculty member Kathy Walmer, and Law School professor Guy Uriel-Charles—has been an inspiration as well. We were able to host a series of remarkable visitors in 2010 and 2011—including Edwidge Danticat, Edouard Duval-Carrié, and Erica James—whose work is a constant inspiration. I also thank Vincent Brown, my new colleague at Duke and a companion in thinking through Caribbean and Atlantic history, for all that he continues to teach me.

  Duke has been a remarkable institution to be at during the past years because of its innovative support of Haitian and Caribbean studies. During that time, I have been blessed to work with an extraordinary group of graduate and undergraduate students. Julia Gaffield has al
ready helped to transform the public’s understanding of Haiti’s history through her research on the early independence period. UNC graduate student Laura Wagner, who has written powerfully about the 2010 earthquake, has shared with me her deep understanding of the presence of the past in contemporary Haiti. Christy Mobley’s commitment to understanding Africa and Haiti has been an inspiration. And Andrew Walker, who as an undergraduate studied with me in the spring of 2010 and is now going on to graduate school, gave me invaluable help as a research assistant. He will soon be helping to change the way we think about twentieth-century Haitian and U.S. history.

  These links are just one part of a larger web of connections that have sustained me for the past decades of work on Haiti. Mentors on Haiti and the Caribbean at Princeton (especially Barbara Browning, Colin Dayan, and Peter Johnson) and the University of Michigan (particularly Fernando Coronil, Simon Gikandi, and Rebecca Scott) illuminated the way forward, while Robert Fatton Jr. and Michel-Rolph Trouillot served as intellectual touchstones and encouraging colleagues.

  Chantalle Verna, whom I began working with when I started my first teaching job at Michigan State University, has been as much a teacher as a student over the years. She is part of a generation of exceptional young scholars who are rewriting twentieth-century Haitian history, and their friendship and writing has been crucial in shaping the approach taken in this book. Millery Polyné and Thor Burnham have shared their insights with me, while Matthew Smith’s work and his participation in an April 2010 conference at Duke have been critical for me. As a leader of the Haitian Studies Association, which plays such a vital role in sustaining research and conversation in the field, he honored me with an invitation to give a keynote address to the group in November 2010. The event allowed me to test out key aspects of this work with a dauntingly expert audience. Kate Ramsey also joined us at Duke in April 2010 and returned for a lecture in the spring of 2011. She was kind enough to share with me chapters of her forthcoming book, which transformed my interpretation of religion and the U.S. occupation.