Hara-Kiri: Japanese Ritual Suicide

by Jack Seward

  Junshi was inspired by the affection and loyalty for their lord in the retainers who protected them and their descendents. This doleful custom had once been abolished in the early stages of Japanese history. When the Empress Hihasu-hime passed away in A.D. 3, Nomi-no-Sukune, the most favored vassal of the court, counseled the Emperor to condemn the traditional custom of self-immolation on the part of the deceased's retainers. The conscientious servant had asked 100 potters from his home province of Izumo to make clay dolls resembling men and horses and offered these to the Emperor. Pleased with Sukune's wisdom, the Emperor issued an Imperial edict prohibiting self-immolation by retainers and ordered that these clay dolls, called haniwa, be substituted for the human beings and animals that had been buried with deceased nobles up to that time. In recognition of his suggestion, Sukune was awarded a name of honor, Haji-no-Omi, and the edict put an end to the unpleasant practice for several hundred years.

  The custom of immolation, once stopped by Nomi-no-Sukune, seems to have passed into the nebulous world of legend. But the rise of the samurai class during the furious strife between the Genji and Heike clans again called the ancient, quiescent custom to life in a different form, that is, self-immolation. Loyalty was emphasized, but this did not necessarily mean the slavish attachment of a dog. It held out the hope of a full life in the role of a vassal. When one loses his master, it means that he has lost a vital part of his life. This relationship was beautified to the extent that formularized acts of self-immolation came to be accepted. It was held that there is nothing so laudable as for a vassal to die for his benevolent master.

  Buddhism also contributed to the advancement of the custom of self-immolation. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the relationship between the parent and the child is "one world," that is, this life; that of a couple is "two worlds," the former life and this life. According to the theory of karma, on the other hand, the relationship between the master and his vassal is "three worlds," that is, the former life, this life, and the future life. This fatalistic karma philosophy inspired the Japanese warriors to gladly offer their lives at the proper moment for their masters.

  During the Muromachi Period (1392-1573), however, we do not see very many examples of self-immolation for one's master. After passing through the dark century called the "Warfare Period," the long-lasting Tokugawa Era was ushered in. It was during this period that we see a grand display of self-immolation and even the strong Edo Government had great difficulty in quenching this fever.

  When a period of peace began with the Keicho Era (1596-1615), many of the warriors who fought so valiantly on the battlefield were still alive. Life became rather dull for them; there was something wanting, for there were no means to show loyalty to the lords and to distinguish themselves. This situation brought forth many examples of self-immolation on the occasion of the death of a great lord.

  According to the Kodokan Kijutsu Gi written by Fujita Toko in the 19th century, cases of self-immolation began increasing in number about the time of the Warfare Period. It was not an unnatural act as long as wars prevailed; however, there are numerous recorded incidents that point out the horrible and unnatural practice that it was during times of peace.

  These incidents show how it was the fashion of the day to sacrifice one's self for his lord. This was called by another name, i.e., oibara, which means "following or accompanying hara-kiri." Since this custom was highly lauded, vassals were encouraged to sacrifice themselves to pass on fine reputations to their descendants.

  Later, however, from the Gem-Pei Period on, self-immolation was most often practiced by the samurai when a warrior's master fell on the battlefield.

  Ieyasu, the first Shogun of the Tokugawa Government (1600-1867) came strongly to oppose the custom and voiced his distaste for it in his "Legacy" or posthumous instructions, the 76th article of which read: "Although it is undeniably the ancient custom for a vassal to follow his lord in death, there is not the slightest reason for this practice. Confucius himself ridiculed the making of yo [effigies buried with the dead]. These practices are strictly forbidden to secondary as well as to primary retainers. He who disregards this prohibition is the reverse of the faithful servant. His descendants shall be punished by the confiscation of his property as a warning against any who would disobey this law...."

  Finally, the bakufu, or feudal government, was obliged to issue a harsher edict. It was a futile custom. It would be far better to serve loyally the survivors of the dead lord. It should be an act of disloyalty to waste a precious life in the master's service through such sacrifices. Under this principle the bakufu prohibited the custom as of May 23rd, the 3rd year of Kambun (1663). The edict of prohibition, which directed that the family of any violator be punished, ran as follows:

  We have said long before that the act of self-immolation is both evil and futile. However, it has not until now been officially prohibited. We see too many vassals immolate themselves these days. In the event that a lord has a pre-sentiment that a certain vassal is liable to immolate himself, he should admonish him strongly against it during his lifetime. If he fails to do so, it shall be counted as his fault. His heir will not escape appropriate punishment.

  It is said that the man who recommended this prohibition was Lord Matsudaira Nobutsuna of Izu.

  Even prior to this edict, there were a few daimyo, or lords, who banned this custom in their own fiefs. For example, when Lord Hotta Masamori decided to immolate himself for the third Shogun, he said to his vassals before his death that he himself would follow his Shogun-master in death but that his own vassals were by no means to follow him; that, instead, they should live to serve his sons.

  Five years after the ban, on February 19th in the 8th year of Kambun (1668), there occurred a violation. A case of self-immolation took place in the house of Okudaira, the lord of Utsunomiya Castle. The bakufu judged that it was the fault of the lord. However, in view of the fact that the house of Okudaira had distinguished itself in the service of the Shogunate and taking into account the great favor shown to this feudatory by the Third Shogun, the penalty was mitigated. Still, this feudatory was degraded and ordered to move to a lesser fief in Yamagata.

  Against the family of Sugiura Uemon no Hyoei, a self-immolator, the following adjudication was pronounced: the eldest son (Zen'eimon) and the second son (Yokota Hichijuro) shall commit seppuku; the two daughters' husbands, Okudaira Godayu and Inada Sebei, shall be banished.

  Finally, in 1682, in addition to the bafuku edict, a prohibitory clause was added to the penal code of the samurai class, putting an end to the custom. Thus the infraction of the clause by General Nogi and his wife on the eve of the funeral of Emperor Meiji in 1912 caused considerable commotion among the Japanese, for they assumed the General to be a model of ancient chivalry and a strict adherent to the samurai code.

  Junshi or self-immolation to follow one's master in death thus finally ceased. In place of it, a person who wanted to honor his deceased master decided to renunciate this lower world, and take the tonsure and become a monk to pray throughout his life for the soul of his dead master.

  An outstanding example occurred when Minamoto-no-Sanetomo was assassinated beside the gingko tree in the Hachiman Shrine in Kamakura (1219). Then, about one hundred retainers renounced this world and became monks or nuns.

  Kanshi, attempts to remonstrate with an erring superior by committing seppuku, were made now and then but not quite as often asjunshi.

  Oda Nobunaga, the famed general, was a wild youth. His closest retainer committed seppuku to caution him and thus occasioned deep self-reflection by Oda.

  Sokotsu-shi, or expiatory seppuku, meant "death for imprudence or heedlessness." In the event of a grave mistake, the samurai shouldered his responsibility and committed seppuku in expiation. This kind of seppuku was practiced frequently during the Tokugawa Period when social institutions had become formalized and rather stereotyped. Even unintentional breaches of formalities, therefore, often served as cause for expiatory sep
puku.

  In the post-feudal era, suicide as a means of taking responsibility did not cease among the Japanese. Such tragedies occurred among the locomotive engineers on the Imperial train of the Emperor Meiji, when minor delays were construed as heedlessness and responsibility was taken by committing suicide.

  During World War II, a young naval reserve officer, a graduate of a commercial college, committed seppuku when he could not complete his assigned task within the given period of time. He was greatly honored at his funeral by the Japanese Navy. Such seppuku was deemed expiatory and all trace of shame was removed. No Japanese would laugh at such a deed. Even now, Japanese use the idiom seppuku-mono, which means "a situation that calls for seppuku."

  Seppuku is also resorted to as a means of displaying dire resentment, hatred, or enmity. This type is called munenbara, or seppuku from mortification. For example, Sen-no-Rikyu, a celebrated teacher of the tea ceremony at the time of Hideyoshi, offended the latter to the extent of being ordered to commit seppuku. Angered at the unjustness of the charge, he cut open his abdomen and drew out part of his intestines, which he placed on a tray. He cut them free of his body and, dying, instructed that they be presented to Hideyoshi. This kind of seppuku is also called funshi, seppuku caused by indignation.

  Although there is no precise word for it in Japanese, a sort of "vicarious seppuku" was practiced during the Sengoku Jidai (The Era of Warfare) with the aim of saving the lives of many by the sacrifice of one life, often that of the most responsible person. For example, when Hideyoshi was warring with Mori Motonari, he decided to try to effect a reconciliation with the latter. At that time, Hideyoshi had under siege one of Mori's castles, which was commanded by Shimizu Muneharu. Hideyoshi offered to spare the rest of the garrison if Lord Mori would have Shimizu commit seppuku, to which Mori agreed.

  Connected to this episode is a moving example of junshi: On the eve of Shimizu's seppuku, his favorite vassal Shirai sent a request that Shimizu visit his room. When Shimizu arrived, Shirai apologized for having his master visit his humble quarters and explained that he had wanted to reassure his master that seppuku was not difficult and that he, Shimizu, should not be concerned about what he would have to do on the morrow. So saying, Shirai bared his abdomen to show that he himself had completed the act of seppuku only a moment before Shimizu's arrival. Shimizu gave Shirai his deepest thanks for his loyal devotion and assisted him in kaishaku, i.e., he beheaded him with his sword.

  Footnote

  * It is the Buddhist custom to place a corpse with its head to the north. This ceremonial custom derives from the belief that Buddha entered Nirvana facing the west with his head to the north and his right arm underneath his head.

  III

  CUSTOMS &

  FORMALITIES

  Sites Used in the Seppuku Ceremony

  IN THE earlier part of the Tokugawa Period, seppuku rites were carried out in temples.

  In 1647, a vassal of a certain feudal lord ended a quarrel with a sailor by killing him. The magistrate of Osaka, after investigating the case, ordered that the offender commit seppuku in Osaka's Kanzanji Temple.

  Again, in 1644, during the Shoho Era, a samurai was ordered to commit seppuku for the crime of highly immoral behavior. The site used was in the Shimpukuji Temple in Kojimachi, in Edo (Tokyo).

  On the 26th of June in the 8th year of Empo (1680), a Buddhist grand mass was being observed for Ietsuna, the late Shogun, at the Zojoji Temple in Edo. At that time, Sir Nagai, the Lord of Shinano, was killed by Sir Naito, the Lord of Izumi, with whom he was on bad terms. The latter was taken as a prisoner immediately by officials of the Shogunate. Several days later, he committed seppuku at the command of the Shogun in the courtyard of Shinryuji Temple.

  In all of the foregoing examples, attention should be directed to the fact that a Shinto Shrine was never used. This derives from the Shinto belief that corpses are anathema to holy precincts and priests, whereas in Buddhism, the whole structure of holy writ is directed toward preparation for death. Hence, the Buddhist temples were ideal sites for the seppuku ceremonies.

  When the seppuku rite was carried out in the provinces, away from the Shogun's seat of government in Edo, there was little concern that it in any way might displease the Shogun. However, when it took place in Edo, there was a greater chance of incurring the anger of the Shogun for one or another of the complicated rules of etiquette by which the nobles lived.

  Under the Tokugawa Shogunate, there were about 60 feudal lords, great and small, throughout the country. These lords were not permitted to live permanently in their own fiefs but had to maintain mansions and spend much of their time in Edo. They could not stay in their own fiefs longer than one year at a time and, even then, they had to leave their wives and children in Edo during their absence from the capital. This strategy on the part of the Shogun had certain controlling effects: Each lord could not stay in his own fief long enough to adequately prepare for and foment rebellion; his family were hostages in the Shogun's capital; and the great expenses of going to and from the capital in the highly elaborate processions of the day and of maintaining separate residences at home and in style- and class-conscious Edo often left the lords without excess funds with which to rally their men and stir up émeutes.

  This being the situation, each lord and his family had to spend much of his time in residence in Edo, under the ever vigilant eyes of the Shogun and his constabulary, and they had to pay every possible attention to not offending the Shogun.

  For example, Lord Inoue once commanded that one of his vassals, Ishikawa Katsuzaemon, commit seppuku at the Lord's mansion in Kanda-bashi, which was located just a relatively short distance from the castle of the Shogun. When the news of this seppuku reached the ears of the Shogun, it displeased him very much, because he did not feel that the sentence was justified. He therefore ordered Lord Inoue to move his residence farther from his own castle, under the pretext that seppuku without Shogunal sanction, committed so close to the castle, was a sign of disrespect.

  Thereafter, those lords with residences near the castle saw to it that all cases of seppuku for which they were responsible took place in villas outside the capital or in homes in the distant suburbs.

  When an offense calling for the sentence of seppuku took place while a lord was traveling with his retinue, it was deemed proper to borrow a nearby Buddhist temple for the ceremony.

  The Site Itself

  Toward the latter half of the Tokugawa Era, the seppuku ceremony usually came to be performed in the evening. The ceremony took place usually in the mansion or garden of the feudal lord where the condemned was being kept under surveillance. The decision as to whether the ceremony was to be conducted indoors or in the yard was based primarily on the social standing of the offender.

  For offenders of comparatively high rank, the size of the place of disembowelment was 36 square shaku, the shaku of those days being about 14 inches. There were entrances on both the north and the south. The north gate was called the shugyo-mon (ascetic gate) and the south gate, the nehanmon (Nirvana gate). Two white-edged tatami (reed mats) were arranged to form the figure "T."

  A white futon (cushion) about four feet square was placed on the tatami. At the four corners, poles were erected and surrounding curtains were hung from these. Right in front of the two tatami was a gate approximately 9 feet high and 7 feet wide. It looked like the entrance gate leading into the premises of a temple; in this case, however, it was a green bamboo frame covered with white cloth. From the framework were hung white curtains. Four white streamers called mujoki (banners of heartlessness) were flown from the tops of the four corner poles. These banners were to be carried with the corpse to the tomb after the ceremony.

  At dusk, two lamps, one on each side of the tatami, were lit. These lamps were placed on calyxes supported by long bamboo poles and covered with white cloth. The person to commit seppuku, entering through the "ascetic gate," sat on the prepared cushion, facing north. At the same time he passed throu
gh the entrance, his kaishaku (assistant) came in through the opposite south gate and sat on the tatami prepared for him beside the victim.

  If it was not the yard, a seldom-used room was usually selected as the site for the ceremony. Selection of the living room or another room in frequent use as the site signified more respect for the person to commit seppuku.

  For all that, it was a common and understandable desire to wish to avoid unnecessary mess from the blood and some were of the opinion that a new, simple structure should be built for each case of seppuku and destroyed later. In some fiefs, rooms for the special and sole use of the seppuku ceremony were constructed. Remains of the latter can be seen today in the famous castle of Himeji.

  Thus, on one hand, there was the human feeling of abhorrence of blood and, on the other, the theoretical notion that seppuku exemplified the flower of Bushido or chivalry and should thus be revered. There was a case in point of the Forty-Seven Loyal Retainers, the famous samurai who avenged their lord's death and who were all ordered to commit seppuku by the Tokugawa Shogun. It was arranged that 17 of these would perform the ceremony within the inner premises of the mansion of Lord Hosokawa Tsunayoshi. His vassals were concerned about the possible defilement of the premises and they were arranging for a purification ritual to be performed by a shugenja (an ascetic hermit of the mountains) from the Shinzoin. When he heard of this, Lord Tsunayoshi ordered that his vassals desist. It was his opinion that these 17 samurai had been granted an honorable way of death and that their crime, if crime it was, came from their observing such precepts of Buddhism as "Honor thy Master." Therefore, he felt that the seppuku of the 17 samurai on his premises would serve more to propitiate the Buddhist tutelary deities rather than to offend them, and that there was no need for purification rites.