Masters of the Planet

by Ian Tattersall

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  Leakey, R. E. F. 1973. Evidence for an advanced Plio-Pleistocene hominid from East Rudolf, Kenya. Nature 242: 447–450.

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  CHAPTER 6: LIFE ON THE SAVANNA

  See Aiello and Wheeler (1995) for the “expensive tissue hypothesis” (guts and brain). Body and pubic lice were investigated by Reed et al. (2007). The putative early importance of aquatic resources is discussed by contributions in Cunnane and Stewart (2010). Evidence of fire was reported from Swartkrans by Brain and Sillen (1988) and from Chesowanja by Gowlett et al. (1981). The argument for very early hominid use of fire has been laid out in most detail by Wrangham (2009). Sandgathe et al. (2011) have made the opposite case, that habitual use of fire came very late. Lack of prosociality in chimpanzees has been demonstrated by, among others, Silk et al. (2005). A particularly interesting review of the Oldowan is by Plummer (2004), and raw material transport at Kanjera is analyzed by Braun et al. (2008).

  Aiello, L., P. Wheeler. 1995. The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution. Curr. Anthropol. 36: 199–221.

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  Braun, D. R., T. Plummer, P. Ditchfield, J. V. Ferrari, D. Maina, L. C. Bishop, R. Potts. 2008. Oldowan behavior and raw material transport: Perspectives from the Kanjera Formation. Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 35: 2329–2345.

  Cunnane, S. C., K. M. Stewart (eds.). 2010. Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

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  Plummer, T. 2004. Flaked stones and old bones: Biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology. Yrbk Phys. Anthropol. 47: 118–164.

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  Sandgathe, D. M., H. L. Dibble, P. Goldberg, S. P. McPherron, A. Turq, L. Niven, J. Hodgkins. 2011. Timing of the appearance of habitual fire use. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, doi/10.173/pnas.1106759108.

  Silk, J. B., S. F. Brosnan, J. Vonk, D. J. Povinelli, A. S. Richardson, S. P. Lambeth, J. Mascaro, S. J. Schapiro. 2005. Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members. Nature 437: 1357–1359.

  Wrangham, R. 2009. Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. New York: Basic Books.

  CHAPTER 7: OUT OF AFRICA . . . AND BACK

  The first Dmanisi hominid was described by Gabunia and Vekua (1995), and later ones by Gabunia et al. (2000a,b), Gabounia et al. (2002), de Lumley and Lordkipanidze (2006) and Lordkipanidze (2007); for dating see de Lumley et al. (2002). The toothless Dmanisi skull was interpreted by Lordkipanidze et al. (2005), and for environmental reconstruction see Messager et al. (2010). An up-to-date review of handaxe cultures (and indeed all ancient stone tool making traditions) can be found in Klein (2009). The Olorgesailie hominid and tool assemblage was described by Potts et al. (2004), and the Isimila site by Howell et al. (1972). Earliest Acheulean was reported by Lepre et al. (2011). Holloway et al. (2004) list fossil hominid brain sizes, and describe endocasts. The Buia hominid was described by Abbate et al. (1998); the Daka specimen by Asfaw et al. (2002); and the two lineages at Ileret by Spoor et al. (2007). Brown et al. (2004) described Homo floresiensis; for additional discussion see Martin et al. (2006) and Jungers and Baab (2009), and bibliographies therein.

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  Asfaw, B., W. H. Gilbert, Y. Beyene, W. K. Hart, P. R. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, E. S. Vrba, T. D. White. 2002. Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 416: 317–320.

  Brown, P., T. Sutikna, M. J. Morwood, R. P. Soejono, Jatmiko, E. W. Saptomo, R. A. Due. 2004
. A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature 431: 1055–1061.

  de Lumley, H., D. Lordkipanidze, G. Féraud, T. Garcia, C. Perrenoud, C. Falguères, J. Gagnepain, T. Saos, P. Voinchet. 2002. Datation par la méthode 40Ar/39Ar de la couche de cendres volcaniques (couche VI) de Dmanissi (Géorgie) qui a livré des restes d’hominidés fossils de 1.81 Ma. C. R. Palévol. 1: 181–189.

  Gabounia, Léo, M-A. de Lumley, A. Vekua, D. Lordkipanidze, H. de Lumley. 2002. Découverte d’un nouvel hominidé à Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, Géorgie). C. R. Palevol 1: 243–253.

  Gabunia L., Vekua A. 1995. A Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Dmanisi, east Georgia, Caucasus. Nature 373: 509–512

  Gabunia L., Vekua A., Lordkipanidze D. 2000a. The environmental contexts of early human occupations of Georgia (Transcaucasia). Jour. Hum. Evol. 38: 785–802

  Gabunia L., Vekua A., Lordkipanidze D., Swisher C. C., Ferring R., Justus A., Nioradze M., Tvalcrelidze M., Anton S., Bosinski G. C., Jöris O., de Lumley M. A., Majusuradze G., Mouskhelishvili A. 2000b. Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: Taxonomy, geological setting and age. Science 288: 1019–1025

  Holloway, R. L., D. C. Broadfield, M. S. Yuan. 2004. The Human Fossil Record, Vol. 3: Hominid Endocasts: The Paleoneurological Evidence. New York: Wiley-Liss.

  Jungers, W. L., K. Baab. 2009. The geometry of hobbits: Homo floresiensis and human evolution. Significance 6: 159–164.

  Klein, R. 2009. The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Lepre, C. J., H. Roche, D. V. Kent, S. Harmand, R. L. Quinn, J.-P. Brugal, P.-J. Texier, A. Lenoble, C. S. Feibel. 2011. An earlier age for the Acheulian. Nature 477: 82–85.

  Lordkipanidze, D., A. Vekua, R. Ferring, G. P. Rightmire, J. Agusti, G. Kiladze, A. Mouskhelishvili, M. Ponce de Leon, M. Tappen, C. P. E. Zollikofer. 2005. The earliest toothless hominin skull. Nature 434: 717–718.

  Lordkipanidze, D., T. Jashashvili, A. Vekua, M. Ponce de Leon, C. P. E. Zollikofer, G. P. Rightmire, H. Pontzer, R. Ferring, O. Oms, M. Tappen, M. Bukhsianidze, J. Agusti, R. Kahlke, G. Kiladze, B. Martinez-Navarro, A. Mouskhelishvili, M. Nioradze, L. Rook. 2007. Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449: 305–310.

  Martin, R. D., M. MacLarnon, J. L. Phillips, W. B. Dobyns. 2006. Flores hominid: New species or microcephalic dwarf? Anat. Rec. 288A: 1123–1145.

  Messager, E., V. Lebreton, L. Marquez, E. Russo-Ermoli, R. Orain, J. RenaultMiskovsky, D. Lordkipanidze, J. Despriée, C. Peretto, M. Arzarello. Palaeoenvironments of early hominins in temperate and Mediterranean Eurasia: New palaeobotanical data from Palaeolithic key-sites and synchronous natural sequences. Quat. Sci. Revs 30: 1439–1447.

  Potts, R., A. K. Behrensmeyer, A. Deino, P. Ditchfield, J. Clark. 2004. Small mid-Pleistocene hominin associated with Acheulean technology. Science 305: 75–78.

  Spoor, F., M. G. Leakey, P. N. Gathogo, F. H. Brown, S. C. Anton, I. McDougall, C. Kiarie, F. K. Manthi, L. N. Leakey. 2007. Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 448: 688– 691.

  CHAPTER 8: THE FIRST COSMOPOLITAN HOMINID

  The Mauer jaw was dated by Wagner et al. (2010). See Tattersall (2009) for background to the various Homo heidelbergensis fossils. The Terra Amata site was described by de Lumley and Boone (1976), and the Schoeningen finds by Thieme (1997). See Johnson and McBrearty (2010) for early blade production in Kenya, Marshack (1996) for a description of the Berekhat Ram “Venus,” and Thompson (2004) for the potentially early ostrich eggshell beads from Loiyalangani.

  de Lumley H., Y. Boone. 1976. Les structures d’habitat au Paléolithique inférieur. In H de Lumley (ed.). La Préhistoire française vol. 1. Paris, CNRS, 635–643.

  de Lumley, M-A., D. Lordkipanidze. 2006. L’homme de Dmanissi (Homo georgicus), il y a 1 810 000 ans. Paléontologie humaine et Préhistoire 5: 273–281.

  Howell, F. C., G. H. Cole, M. R. Kleindienst, B. J. Szabo, K. P. Oakley. 1972. Uranium-series dating of bone from Isimila prehistoric site, Tanzania. Nature 237: 51–52.

  Johnson, C. R., S. McBrearty. 2010. 500,000 year old blades from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. Jour. Hum. Evol. 58: 193–200.

  Marshack, A. 1996. A Middle Paleolithic symbolic composition from the Golan Heights: The earliest depictive image. Curr. Anthropol. 37: 357–365.

  Tattersall, I. 2009. The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know about Human Evolution. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Thieme H. 1997. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385: 807–810.

  Wagner, G. A., M. Krbetschek, D. Degering, J.-J. Bahain, Q. Shao, C. Falguères, P. Voinchet, J.-M. Dolo, T. Garcia, G. P. Rightmire. 2010. Radiometric dating of the type-site for Homo heidelbergensis at Mauer, Germany. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, doi/10.1073/pnas.1012722107.

  CHAPTER 9: ICE AGES AND EARLY EUROPEANS

  Van Andel (1994) offers engaging insights into Ice Age–related geology; Vrba (1993, 1996) discusses Plio-Pleistocene environments and faunal turnover pulses from a South African perspective, and Behrensmeyer et al. (1997) present an alternative view based on an East African record. Numerous articles in Delson et al. (2000) deal with Pleistocene geology and faunal change. Important ice core data were presented by EPICA (2004) and discussed by McManus (2004); for a review of sea-floor core data see contributions in Gradstein et al. (2005). The Gran Dolina hominid was described by Carbonell et al. (2008), and Homo antecessor by Bermudez de Castro et al. (1997). The evidence for cannibalism at the Gran Dolina was reported by Fernandez-Jalvo et al. (1999), and reviewed by Carbonell et al. (2010). The Sima de los Huesos fossils are most comprehensively described in contributions to Arsuaga et al. (1997), and the latest dating is by Bischoff et al. (2007). See Andrews and Fernandez Jalvo (1997) for a dissenting view on the Sima accumulation. The potential symbolic significance of the Sima handaxe is discussed by Carbonell and Mosquera (2006), and paleoenvironments by Garcia and Arsuaga (2010). For the broader picture of relationships among Middle Pleistocene hominids, see Tattersall and Schwartz (2009).

  Andrews, P., Y. Fernadez Jalvo. 1997. Surface modifications of the Sima de los Huesos hominids. Jour Hum. Evol. 33: 191–217.

  Arsuaga, J.-L., J. M. Bermudez de Castro, E. Carbonell (eds). 1997. Special Issue: The Sima de los Huesos hominid site. Jour. Hum. Evol. 33: 105–421.

  Behrensmeyer, A. K., N. E. Todd, R. Potts, G. E. McBrinn. 1997. Late Pliocene faunal turnover in the Turkana Basin, Kenya and Ethiopia. Science 278: 1589–1594.

  Bermudez de Castro, J. M. B, J. L. Arsuaga, E. Carbonell, A Rosas, I. Martínez, M. Mosquera. 1997. A hominid from the Lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: Possible ancestor to Neandertals and modern humans. Science 276: 1392–1395.

  Bischoff, J. L., R. W. Williams, R. J. Rosenbauer, A. Aramburu, J. L. Arsuaga, N. García, G. Cuenca-Bescós. 2007. High-resolution U-series dates from the Sima de los Huesos hominids yields 600±66 kyrs: implications for the evolution of the early Neanderthal lineage. Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 34: 763–770.

  Carbonell, E., M. Mosquera. 2006. The emergence of symbolic behaviour: The sepulchral pit of Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain. C. R. Palevol. 5: 155–160.

  Carbonell, E., I. Caceres, M. Lizano, P. Saladie, J. Rosell, C. Lorenzo, J. Vallverdu, R. Huguet, A. Canals, J. M. Bermudez de Castro. 2010. Cultural cannibalism as a paleoeconomic system in the European lower Pleistocene. Curr. Anth. 51: 539–549.

  Carbonell, E., J. M. Bermudez de Castro, J. M. Pares, A. Perez-Gonzalez, G. Cuenca-Bescos, A. Olle, M. Mosquera, R. Huguet, J. van der Made, A. Rosas, R. Sala, J. Vallverdu, N. Garcia, D. E. Granger, M. Martinon-Torres, X. P. Rodriguez, G. M. Stock, J. M. Verges, E. Allue, F. Burjachs, I. Càceres, A. Canals, A. Benito, C. Diez, M. Lozanao, A. Mateos, M. Navazo, J. Rodriguez, J. Rosell, J. L. Arsuaga. 2008. The first hominin of Europe. Nature 452: 465–469.

  Delson, E., I. Tattersall, J. A. Van Couvering, A.
S. Brooks. 2000. Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory, 2nd ed. New York: Garland Press.

  EPICA community. 2004. Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core. Nature 429: 623–628.

  Fernandez-Jalvo, Y., J. Carlos Diez, I. Càceres, J. Rosell. 1999. Human cannibalism in the Early Pleistocene of Europe (Gran Dolina, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Jour. Hum. Evol. 37: 591–622.

  Garcia, N., J.-L. Arsuaga. 2010. The Sima de los Huesos (Burgos, northern Spain): Palaeoenvironment and habitats of Homo heidelbergensis during the Middle Pleistocene. Quat. Sci. Revs., doi:10:1016/jquascirev.2010.11 .08.

  Gradstein, F., J. Ogg, A. G. Smith (eds). 2005. A Geological Time Scale 2004. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  McManus, J. F. 2004. A great grand-daddy of ice cores. Nature 429: 611–612.

  Tattersall, I., J. H. Schwartz. 2009. Evolution of the genus Homo. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 37: 67–92.

  Van Andel, T. H. 1994. New Views on an Old Planet. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.

  Vrba, E. S. 1993. The pulse that produced us. Natural History 102 (5): 47–51.

  Vrba, E. S. 1996. Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

  CHAPTER 10: WHO WERE THE NEANDERTHALS?

  For an account of the Biache fossil, see Schwartz and Tattersall (2002); for Reilingen, see Dean et al. (1998). For the coexistence of lineages in Europe see Tattersall and Schwartz (2006), for Finnish Mousterian see Schulz (2000), for the Altai Neanderthal genetic signature see Krause et al. (2007), and for Neanderthal avoidance of periglacial environments see Patou-Mathis (2006). The late presumed Neanderthal occurrence in northern Russia was reported by Slimak et al. (2011). Pearson et al. (2006) discuss Neanderthal climatic adaptation, as do various contributions in Van Andel and Davies (2003).