The Beautiful Tree
Page 36
3 Sources cited in this section are, in order, Save the Children UK, South and Central Asia, “A Perspective from Nepal and Pakistan,” p. 10; UNICEF, submission to “The Private Sector as Service Provider,” pp. 11-12; and World Bank, World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People (Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 47, 49, 52 (emphasis added), 6, 55, 6-7, 115, 60, 56, 6, 8, 57, 124, 57, and 124.
Chapter 9
1 See E. A. Hanushek, “The Failure of Input-Based Schooling Policies,” Economic Journal 113, no. 485 (2003): F64-F98; and A. B. Krueger, “Economic Considerations and Class Size,” Economic Journal 113, no. 485 (2003): F34-F63.
2 Nandan Nilekani, Imagining India: Ideas for the New Century (New Delhi: Allen Lane, Penguin, 2008), pp. 92-93.
3 K. Watkins, The Oxfam Education Report (Oxford: Oxfam in Great Britain, 2000), p. 230.
4 UNDP, Human Development Report 2003 (New York: UNDP, 2005), p. 115.
5 A. Mingat and C. Winter, “Education for All by 2015,” Finance and Development 39, no. 1 (2002): 1-6; and M. Zymelman and J. Destefano, “Primary School Teachers Salaries in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Division Paper no. 45, World Bank, Washington, 1989.
6 See, for example, A. Dabalen and B. Oni, “Labor Market Prospects of University Graduates in Nigeria,” World Bank, Washington, 2000.
7 Gansu Statistics Bureau, 2004 Gansu Yearbook (Beijing: China Statistics Publishing House, 2004).
Chapter 10
1 Sources cited in this section are, in order, PROBE Team, Public Report on Basic Education in India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 105-6; K. Watkins, “Private Education and ‘Education for All’—or How Not to Construct an Evidence-Based Argument,” Economic Affairs 24, no. 4 (2004): 11; World Bank, World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People (Washington: World Bank, 2003), pp. 3, 10-11, and 33; UNDP, Human Development Report 2003 (New York: UNDP, 2003), p. 111; World Bank, p. 4; UNDP, p. 93; K. Watkins, The Oxfam Education Report (Oxford: Oxfam in Great Britain, 2000), pp. 207 and 230; PROBE Team, p. 105; UNDP, p. 115; World Bank, pp. 6 and 9; Watkins, Oxfam Education Report, p. 232; UNDP, p. 111; World Bank, p. 33; UNDP, p. 1; World Education Forum, The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments (Paris: UNESCO, 2000), p. 8 (emphasis added); UNESCO, Education for All: Is the World on Track? EFA Global Monitoring Report 2002 (Paris: UNESCO, 2002), p. 29; UNESCO, “Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments, Expanded Commentary on the Dakar Framework for Action,” Paris, 2000a, pp. 14 (emphasis added) and 15 (emphasis added), www.unesco.org/education/efa/wef_2000/expanded_com_eng.shtml; World Bank, p. 3; UNDP, p. 111; A. Sen, Development as Freedom (New York: Knopf, 1999), p. 129; World Bank, pp. 11 and 54-55; UNDP, p. 111.
2 Sources for this paragraph and the next are E. G. West, Education and the State, 3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994); A. J. Coulson, Market Education: The Unknown History (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1999); J. Tooley, Reclaiming Education (London: Continuum, 2000); J. Tooley and J. Stanfield, eds., Government Failure: E. G. West on Education (London: Profile Books, 2003); Education Committee, UK National Commission for UNESCO, Education for All: United Kingdom Perspectives (Slough: NFER, 2003), pp. 6 and 24; and B. Geldof, Foreword to The Rough Guide to a Better World, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), pp. 5-6.
Chapter 11
1 William Dalrymple, White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-Century India (London: Harper-Collins, 2002), pp. xliii and xliv.
2 All quotes are from Dharampal, The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century (Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 355.
3 Thomas Munro, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 83.
4 T. Harris, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 88.
5 Dharampal, pp. 18-19 and 34-35.
6 Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, Thomas Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249; Dharampal, pp. 62-63; Sivaramakrishnan, Afterword to The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century, by Dharampal (Coimbatore: Keerthi Publishing House, 1995), p. 439; and Dharampal, p. 22.
7 Sources cited in this section are, in order, William Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268 (emphasis added); Dharampal, p. 12; and G. W. Leitner, 1883, in Dharampal, p. 349.
8 William Cooke, 1823, in Dharampal.
9 Adam, 1841, in Dharampal.
10 Dharampal seemed to have a blind spot here. He wrote that it was the “sophisticated operative fiscal arrangements of the pre-British Indian polity” that assigned tax revenue to “make such education possible” (p. 15). However, he admitted that this conclusion was “still tentative, and in statistical terms somewhat speculative” (p. 15), which was odd, given that elsewhere he had always been extremely careful to avoid any such speculation. But then his justification for the conclusion makes it clear why he went for it, even if not based on firm evidence: “To suppose that such a deep-rooted and extensive system which really catered to all sections of society was maintained on the basis of tuition fees, or through not only gratuitous teaching but also feeding of the pupils by the teachers, is to be grossly ignorant of the actual functioning of any system, or society” (p. 67). In other words, Dharampal was claiming that the education system must be publicly funded because he didn’t believe a system of education could be anything other than publicly funded. In my research, of course, I’d uncovered precisely a fully functioning system of education that depended entirely on tuition fees and a little philanthropy. So it was not logically impossible, as Dharampal implied. It seemed, as all the evidence in his book suggested, that he’d missed a trick because of his assumption here.
11 The source cited in this paragraph is T. Fraser, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 152-53.
12 Sources cited in this paragraph are, in order, J. Sullivan, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 100; and J. Vaughan, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 199.
13 See Dharampal, p. 66.
14 C. Hyde, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 145 (emphasis added).
15 J. Dent, 1825, in Dharampal, p. 228.
16 Dharampal, p. 355.
17 References in this section are, in order, to Philip Hartog, Some Aspects of Indian Education Past and Present, University of London, Institute of Education, Studies and Reports no. VII (London: Oxford University Press, Humphrey Milford, 1939), pp. vii, 11 (emphasis added), 69ff, 72, and 15.
18 A. D. Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 182.
19 References in this paragraph are to Hansard, June 22, 1813, quoted Dharampal, p. 75.
20 L. G. K. Murray, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 113 (emphasis added).
21 H. Vibart, 1822, in Dharampal, p. 94.
22 S. Smalley, 1823, in Dharampal, p. 144.
23 Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, p. 249.
24 Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 268.
25 Ibid., p. 272.
26 Ibid., p. 273.
27 Ibid., p. 277.
28 Dharampal, p. 14.
29 References in this paragraph are to Adam, 1841, in Dharampal, p. 277.
30 House of Commons Papers, 1831-32, vol. 9, p. 468, in Dharampal, p. 383.
31 References in this and next paragraph are to Campbell, 1823, in Dharampal, pp. 179 (emphasis added), 182 (emphasis added), and 179.
32 Quoted in Dharampal, p. 260 (emphasis added).
33 J. M. D. Meiklejohn, An Old Educational Reformer: Dr Andrew Bell (Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1881), pp. 1, 6, 61, and 83.
34 A. Bell, Mutual Tuition and Moral Discipline; or Manual of Instructions for Conducting Schools through the Agency of the Scholars Themselves, 7th ed. (London: Hatchard and Son, 1823), p. 25 or 21 (page numbers inconsistent in original; emphasis in the original).
35 References in this paragraph are to Meiklejohn, An Old Educational Reformer, p. 25.
36 Bell, Mutual Tuition and Moral Discipline, p. 23.
37 References in this and the next paragraph are to Munro, 1826, in Dharampal, pp. 251, 250, 249, and 251.
&n
bsp; 38 References in this and the next four paragraphs are to Y. Vittal Rao, Education and Learning in Andhra under the East India Company (Secunderabad: N. Vidyaranya Swamy, 1979), pp. 82, 82, 79, 81-82, 83-84, and 84.
39 T. B. Macaulay, “Minute of 2 February 1835 on Indian Education,” in Macaulay, Prose and Poetry, selected by G. M. Young (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 721-24 and 729.
40 References in this and the next paragraph are to Y. V. Rao, Education and Learning in Andhra, pp. 192 and 214-15.
41 Sources cited in this and the next two paragraphs are, in order, J. Mill, Edinburgh Review, October 1813, quoted in E. G. West, Education and the State, 3rd ed. (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1994), pp. 170 and 171; 1851 Census, p. CXXXIV-V, quoted in West, Education and the State, p. 175; West, Education and the State, p. 175; E. G. West, “Nineteenth-Century Educational History: The Kiesling Critique,” Economic History Review 36 (1983): 427; West, Education and the State, p. 173.
42 Dharampal, p. 355.
43 See Peng Deng, Private Education in Modern China (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997); Zhiyi He, The Socio-Economic Study on Private Education in Guangdong (Guangzhou, China: Guangdong People’s Publishing House, 2001); Thomas H. C. Lee, Education in Traditional China: A History (Leiden, Neth.: Brill, 2000); and Jing A. Lin, Social Transformation and Private Education in China (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999).
44 J. Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya (London: Vintage Books, 1938), pp. 99, 123, 121, and 120.
45 Kikuyu Province Annual Report, 1929, p. 17.
46 World Bank, World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People (Washington: World Bank, 2003), p. 15; and B. Geldof, Foreword to The Rough Guide to a Better World, by M. Wroe and M. Doney (London: Rough Guides in association with DfID, 2004), p. 5.
Chapter 12
1 W. Easterly, The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good (New York: Penguin Press, 2006), pp. 1 and 384.
2 Ibid., p. 5.
3 Ibid., p. 175.
4 W. Easterly, The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), p. xii.
5 See for example, J. Leach, “DEEP Impact: An Investigation of the Use of Information and Communication Technologies for Teacher Education in the Global South,” Education Paper no. 58, DfID, 2005, www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/ict-teacher-education-no58.asp; P. Murphy and others, Enhancing Learning Opportunities in Africa: Distance Education and Information and Communication Technologies for Learning (Washington: World Bank, 2002); C. Potter and A. S. F. Silva, eds., Teachers in Action: Case Studies of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools (Johannesburg: Open Learning Systems Education Trust, 2002); and R. Rhodes and S. Rasmussen-Tall, “Teacher Training via Radio Is Launched in Mali,” 2005, www/usaidmali.org/article. php?id=0079_EN&lan=en&skin.
6 See S. Mitra and others, “Improving English Pronunciation: An Automated Instructional Approach,” Information Technologies and International Development 1, no. 1 (2003): 75-84.
7 Tony Halpin, Times Educational Supplement, February 5, 2006, www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article734920.ece.
8 C. K. Prahalad, The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing, 2004), p. 13.
9 Ibid., p. 37.
10 For more on Swift, see J. Tooley, “From Adam Swift to Adam Smith: How the ‘Invisible Hand’ Overcomes Middle Class Hypocrisy,” Journal of Philosophy of Education 41, no. 4 (2008): 727-41.
11 References in this paragraph are to Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1980), pp. 204 and 204-5.
12 Ibid., pp. 203-4.
13 Ibid., pp. 197, 196 (emphasis added), 196-97, and 197.
About the Author
Fresh out of college in the early 1980s, James Tooley went to Zimbabwe to become a public school teacher. Now an award-winning scholar featured in PBS and BBC documentaries, he has written several books, and his work has been covered in Newsweek, the Atlantic, the Wall Street Journal, and the Financial Times. Tooley’s career as an academic began at the University of Oxford, his PhD is from the University of London, and he is professor of education policy at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. He currently splits his time between Hyderabad, India, and Beijing, China, where he works with the entrepreneurs and teachers who inspired this book.
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