How the Hot Dog Found Its Bun
Page 15
From there a San Francisco manufacturer named Joseph Krieger refined the bag and began successfully selling his variation commercially to restaurants and hotels in 1919. Americans embraced the new way to drink tea. After all, Yanks did have a love-hate relationship with old-school tea; check your encyclopedia under the heading “Boston Tea Party.”
In contrast, the Brits were not so thrilled at Sullivan’s discovery. For decades after its invention, the British stuck to tradition and avoided bags. It wasn’t until 1953 that a prominent British tea maker, Joseph Tetley and Company, began offering them. Their initial efforts were not good. By the early 1960s only 3 percent of tea was being purchased in bags.
But Tetley continued to advertise heavily, appealing to both the pocketbook (they pointed out that a cup of tea cost less than a penny when it came in a tea bag) and to customers’ busy lifestyles (tea bags were quick and easy to use compared to measuring out tea leaves). Tetley’s efforts combined with additional innovations to the packet turned the British around. Today, 96 percent of tea in the United Kingdom comes via tea bags. That equates to 130 million cups of tea consumed every day via Sullivan’s invention.
Teflon: Guinea pig, refrigerator coolant, and fishing gear
The invention of everyone’s favorite nonstick cooking material, Teflon, is a remarkable example of a series of fortunate moments. Without any of them, our eggs might still be sticking to the frying pan and pundits would have needed another nickname for “Teflon president” Ronald Reagan.
It all begins with Teflon’s inventor, Roy J. Plunkett. An Ohio native, Plunkett graduated from Manchester College in 1932. He went out into the world to look for a job, but his timing couldn’t have been worse. It was the height of the Depression and he couldn’t find work anywhere. Left without options, he decided to go to Ohio State University and pursue a PhD in chemistry. By the time he was finished in 1936, the pains of the economy had lessened and Plunkett found a position at DuPont. His job was to come up with a nontoxic compound to cool refrigerators; he looked to fluorocarbons to reach his goal.
The fact that Plunkett would even consider the odorless, nonflammable, and nontoxic fluorocarbon as a basis for his experiments was thanks to some luck a decade earlier. In 1928 two Frigidaire scientists, Thomas Midgely Jr. and Albert Henne, were the first to consider a fluorocarbon mix, called antimony trifluoride, as a gas to keep refrigerators cool. The chemical was extremely rare. In fact, the scientists ordered five one-ounce bottles, which represented the complete supply in the United States at the time.
Their plan was to place a guinea pig in a bell jar and pump in the gas to see how it reacted to the chemical. They picked one of the five vials of the fluorocarbon substance at random and did the experiment. They were thrilled when the little animal was unscathed by the gas. Just to double check, they took another bottle of the chemical and tried again. Much to their astonishment (and the guinea pig’s horrible luck), the small animal died. It turned out that four of the five bottles contained water, which led to the production of a deadly gas called phosgene. By chance, the first bottle didn’t have any water. If they’d picked one of the water-tainted bottles to start, Midgely and Henne might have deemed fluorocarbons unsafe and moved on.
Instead, Plunkett had the chemical he needed for his experiments. On April 6, 1938, Plunkett was running tests with a fluorocarbon compound called tetrafluoroethylene when something strange happened. He opened a tank in which he was doing his work and no gas came out. The tank’s weight suggested that something should be in the container. “Instead of discarding this tank and getting another to continue his refrigerant research, Plunkett decided to satisfy his curiosity about the ‘empty’ tank,” wrote Royston M. Roberts in his book Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. First he ran a wire through the valve to make sure it wasn’t faulty. Then he cut to the chase and sawed the tank open. Inside was a white waxy powder. This polymer (a combo of gases that turn into a solid) wasn’t going to help cool refrigerators, but Plunkett decided he should check whether it might have other uses. The polymer’s properties proved pretty amazing. It was smooth, but wasn’t dissolvable and couldn’t be damaged by acids, bases, or heat.
It was also very expensive to produce, which brings us to another lucky element to this story: World War II. American military personnel involved in developing the first atomic bomb (aka The Manhattan Project) needed a substance with Teflon’s exact qualities to create a gasket that could withstand an ultratoxic uranium gas used in the bomb. The army said that cost was no issue, so development of Teflon —which otherwise might have been cost-prohibitive—continued through the war.
Long after the hostilities ceased, Teflon found a home in our kitchens. In 1954, a French engineer named Marc Gregoire was the first to patent a Teflon coating for frying pans, but that wasn’t his original plan. He just wanted to use a bit of Teflon to coat fishing gear. He thought it would help avoid tangling. Luckily, his wife Colette suggested that the material might be good for coating her cooking pan. He heeded his wife’s wishes and the result was kitchen magic.
Indestructible when it came to a nuclear bomb, this initial Teflon-coated kitchenware did have a foe it couldn’t beat: the scouring pad, which would scrape the Teflon off in the early days. Today, these pots and pans are far more durable, but they would have never gotten this far if not for the Depression, World War II, a curious scientist, an insightful housewife, and, let us not forget, a doomed guinea pig.
Acknowledgments
As is the case with most endeavors, this book could not have been completed without the help of numerous people. Thanks must begin with my fantastic friend Dan Snierson and my editors at Globe Pequot Press, Katie Benoit and Julie Marsh, for offering expert advice on what I’ve written. Their help was vital in this process. I’m equally grateful for the illustrations provided by David Cole Wheeler, which added so much to this effort. In terms of research, there were two websites that proved particularly valuable in the beginning when I was forming my list of accidental discoveries and unexpected inspirations: Lynne Olver’s www.foodtimeline.org and Linda Stradley’s www.whatscookingamerica.net. To the many culinary authors who have come before me and touched on this topic, I hope that I’ve adequately built on your work. Finally, I must offer my greatest appreciation to my wife, Jennifer, and my kids, Miller and Becca, for being constant sources of inspiration for everything that I do.
Notes
In the main body of this book, I tried to keep references to a minimum in order to maintain some brevity. The sources for the quotes I used can be found here.
Introduction
“Luck affects … will be a fish.” J. K. Hoyt, The Cyclopedia of Practical Quotations (London: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1896), 702.
“were always making . . . not in quest of.” Royston M. Roberts, Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989), IX.
“The really valuable . . . behind the appearance.” Morton A. Meyers, Serendipity in Modern Medical Breakthroughs (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2007), 14.
Starters and Small Plates
Brown ’n Serve Rolls
“nationally famous.” “Rolls You Buy, Then Bake,” Popular Science, September 1950, 119.
Buffalo Wings
“What are these? . . . quiet and use your fingers!” Jay Rey, “The Lore of the Wings / Long Before the Fest, a Night of Discovery,” Buffalo News, September 4, 2004, D1.
Caesar Salad
“the greatest recipe . . . in 50 years.” Associated Press, “Creator of Caesar Salad Dressing Dies,” USA Today, September 15, 2003, www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-09-15-salad_x.htm.
“One of my early remembrances . . . lunch at Caesar’s Restaurant.” Marc Lacey, “Wary Tourists Toss Aside a Chance to Taste History,” New York Times, October 22, 2008, A-10.
“One day, my brother . . . me for mine.” Rosemary Speirs, “Hail Caesar; Czar of All the Salads,” Canadian Magazine (insert in the Montreal Gazette)
, April 6, 1973, 30.
Cobb Salad
“their watering hole” and “the most . . . in the world.” Sally Wright Cobb and Mark Willems, The Brown Derby Restaurant: A Hollywood Legend (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 1996), 140 and 111.
Kellogg’s Corn Flakes
“I feel kind of blue . . . things look now.” Paul Lukas and Maggie Overfelt, “Kellogg: Feeling Boxed In by His Brother, W. K. Kellogg Invented Corn Flakes, Only to Get Ripped Off by His Competitors. But With a Clever Ad Blitz, He Became the Champion of Breakfast,” Fortune Small Business, April 1, 2003, http: //money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341013/index.htm.
Nachos
“consisted of . . . jalapeno peppers,” Andrew F. Smith (ed.), The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 210.
Tapas
“The art of tapeo . . . juicy gossip.” Alan Davidson, Tom Jaine (eds.), The Oxford Companion to Food (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 783.
“It became customary . . . outdo the competition.” Martha Stewart, “Ask Martha: Proper display, storage of snapshots is in order; Preserve memories for future generation,” Charleston Daily Mail (West Virginia), October 14, 1998, P2D.
Main Courses
Chicken Marengo
“This battle is . . . to win another”; “three small eggs . . . some oil”; “plausible . . . sheer legend”; “You must feed . . . every battle”; and “abundance of . . . and wine.” Patricia Bunning Stevens, Rare Bits: Unusual Origins of Popular Recipes (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1998), 92–93.
Chicken Tikka Masala
“[O]ne day . . . cream and spices.” and “Chicken tikka masala . . . chicken with spices.” and “It’s basically . . . periodical improvisation,” Dean Nelson and Jalees Andrabi, “Chicken tikka masala row grows as Indian chefs reprimand Scottish MPs over culinary origins,” Daily Telegraph (UK), August 4, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/5972643/Chicken-tikka -masala-row-grows-as-Indian-chefs-reprimand-Scottish-MPs-over -culinary-origins.html.
“the culinary masterpiece . . . Britain’s most popular curry . . . EU Protected Designation of Origin.” Early Day Motion 1911 (British Parliament), July 16, 2009.
Fettuccine Alfredo
“It was a hell of . . . had to do something.” Bob Lape, “Alfredo’s to toast birthday, eatery,” Crain’s New York Business, October 17, 1988, 22.
“Alfredo doesn’t make . . . He achieves it.” Todd Coleman, “The Real Alfredo,” Saveur, April 13, 2009, www.saveur.com/article/Kitchen/The-Real-Alfredo.
“‘Look here . . . won the war?’’ Paul Hoffman, “Fettuccine—A Dish Fit For A Duchess,” New York Times, November 1, 1981, Sec. 10, p. 9.
Filet-O-Fish
“Ray said . . . his sandwich did.” and “My fish sandwich . . . saved my franchise.” Paul Clark (Cincinnati Enquirer), “No fish story: Sandwich saved his McDonald’s,” USA Today, February 20, 2007, www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2007-02-20-fish2-usat_x.htm.
French Dip Sandwich
“one day . . . wanted the same.” Robert Rector, “Philippe’s an institution steeped in history,” San Gabriel Valley Tribune (California), October 9, 2008.
“Mathieu inadvertently . . . more dipped sandwiches.” www.philippes.com/history/.
“We don’t . . . dip department.” and “Who knows . . . still be around.” Steve Harvey, “L.A. Then and Now; Century-old Cole’s serves a slice of history; New owners added upscale touches but maintained the deliciously seedy ambience and French dip rivalry,” Los Angeles Times, March 8, 2009, A-34.
Philly Cheesesteak
“the man who . . . playing the piccolo.” Bryce Crawford, “Brotherly grub: City of Philly Cheese Steak out plenty,” Colorado Springs Independent, October 14, 2010, www.csindy.com/colorado/brotherly-grub/Content?oid=1877563.
Sandwiches
“There may have . . . was the result.” C. R. L. Fletcher, Historical Portraits: 1700-1850 Part I (Vol. III of the Series) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1919), 229.
“He was . . . abandoned character.” J. Heneage Jesse, Memoirs: Celebrated Etonians (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1875), 62.
Tempura
“I had long . . . Japanese cuisine.” Takashi Morieda, “The Japanese Table,” Kikkoman website, www.kikkoman.com/foodforum/thejapanesetablebackissues/06.shtml.
TV Dinners
“It was very . . . for turkeys.” and “a metaphor . . . annual problem,” Roy Rivenburg, “A landmark idea, yes, but whose? Tracing the invention of the TV dinner opens a can, er, tray of worms,” Los Angeles Times, November 23, 2003, E1.
“I figured . . . some attention,” Associated Press, “Think of Gerry Thomas when you eat your next TV dinner,” Gazette (Cedar Rapids, Iowa), November 17, 1999, 8A.
Desserts
Chocolate Chip Cookies
“try a lot . . . husband’s favorites.” and “your goal . . . and hostess.” Ruth Graves Wakefield, Toll House Tried and True Recipes (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1977), 59.
“no substitutes . . . cream.” and “Certainty in . . . eliminates failures.” Ruth Graves Wakefield, Ruth Wakefield’s Toll House Tried and True Recipes (New York: M. Barrows & Company, Inc., 1940), 3, 9.
Chocolate Molten Cake (Chocolate Lava Cake)
“as gracefully as . . . even riveting—meals.” Frank Bruni, “Two Trailblazers, Well Down the Trail,” New York Times, August 16, 2006, F8.
“legend . . . clean and simple.” Alexandra Gill, “Where’s the wow?” Globe and Mail (Toronto), March 25, 2009, www.theglobeandmail.com/life/article977186.ece.
“Baking one . . . miscalculated the timing.” and “screaming wanting the recipe.” Virginia Gerst, “This is a flop? Kitchen mistakes—like this molten chocolate cake—can live on and turn into classics with time.” Chicago Tribune, April 26, 2006, 1 (Good Eating section).
“He was the . . . in France already.” Arthur Schwartz, “Jacques Torres and Molten Chocolate Cake,” April 9, 2001, www.thefoodmaven.com/diary/00000167.html.
Cookies ’N Cream Ice Cream
“Swirl, smack . . . you’re looking for.” Liz Van Hooser, “Meet an official taster for Edy’s ice cream,” Florida Times-Union (Jacksonville), April 2, 2009, http: //jacksonville.com/lifestyles/food/2009-04-02/story/tough_on_ice_cream.
“I was in . . . invented by accident.” Tracy Rasmussen, “Way cookie crumbled gave birth to hit flavor,” Reading Eagle (Pennsylvania), April 30, 2001, A4.
Crêpes Suzette
“I was only 16 . . . that day crêpes Suzette.” and “unglamorous as . . . stand.” James Bacon (Associated Press), “Accidental Flame Won World Fame,” Robesonian (Lumberton, N.C.), April 19, 1961, 2.
“a jeweled . . . a cane,” Henri Charpentier, Boyden Sparks, and Alice Waters, Life a la Henri: Being the Memories of Henri Charpentier (New York: Modern Library, 2001), 57.
“I only make . . . and happy diners.” James Bacon (Associated Press), “Legendary Crepes Suzette Creator Dies at Age 81,” Modesto Bee (California), December 25, 1961, A2.
Granny Smith Apples
“is nearly . . . in shipping.” Roger Yepsen, Apples (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1994), 120.
Candies and Snacks
Cheese Puffs
“[w]hen streamlets . . . human consumption.” US Patent #2,295,868, Patented September 15, 1942, entitled “Process for Preparing Food Products.”
Chewing Gum
“It was an accident . . . something with bubbles.” Abby Goodnough, “W. E. Diemer, Bubble Gum Inventor, Dies at 93,” New York Times, January 12, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/12/us/we-diemer-bubble-gum-inventor-dies-at-93.html.
Doughnuts
“greasy sinkers”; “the first . . . mortal eyes”; and “Of course . . . we used to eat.” Sally Levitt Steinberg, The Donut Book: The Whole Story in Words, Pictures & Outrageous Tales (North Adams, Mass.: Storey Publishing, 2004), 69.
Graham Crackers
“enthusiastically embraced.” Barbara Brown Zikmund, “The legacy of this place: Oberlin, Ohio,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies, September 22, 2007, 499.
“Grahamites” and “poet of bran,” Charles Panati, Panati’s Extraordinary Origins of Everyday Things (New York: Perennial Library, 1987), 414.
Jelly Tots
“I didn’t even . . . attention to it.” and “They either hug . . . ruining their teeth.” Grant Woodward, “Brian Boffey: Horsforth’s own Jelly Tots inventor,” Yorkshire Post (UK), March 9, 2009.
PEZ
“a luxury confection for wealthy people.” “Austrian Cult Candy: PEZ Celebrates its 80th Anniversary With a Unique Charity Campaign!” Medianet Press Release Wire, October 10, 2007.
“smoking prohibited, PEZing allowed.” Food Trade Review, March 1, 2007.
“pocket article dispensing container.” US Patent #2,620,061, Patented December 2, 1952, entitled “Pocket Article Dispensing Container.”
Pop Rocks
“Throughout the industry . . . one else considered”; “Carbonated candy . . . better to do?”; and “we checked . . . alive and well.” Marv Rudolph, Pop Rocks: The Inside Story of America’s Revolutionary Candy (Sharon, Mass.: Specialty Publishers LLC, 2006), 1, 21, 87.