government duplicity toward, 89, 133, 134, 171–72, 178, 180–81, 210, 223, 242
government policy toward, 96–97, 109, 134–38, 166–81, 225, 231
during Great Depression, 227
as local color, 183, 217, 223
in Louisiana Purchase, 12
marriage customs of, 46–48, 51, 53
racism against, 94, 114, 131, 138–39, 154–55, 163, 186, 189, 197, 214–15
rivalries and warfare among, 23–26, 31, 43–45, 62–65, 96–97
romanticizing and fetishizing of, 190–91, 205, 216, 235
self-determination goal of, 231
sign language of, 204
starvation of, 113, 177, 178, 180, 185
whites compared to, 18
see also specific tribes
“Indians, The” (Child), 138–39
Indian Territory, in allotment, 172, 172, 175, 179, 201
Indian Wars, 2, 110, 138, 162
see also specific battles and incidents
influenza, 4
Interior Department, U.S.:
in allotments, 179–80, 189
in compensation claim for Marias Massacre, 148–49, 151
in transfer initiative, 134–37, 140
intermarriage:
laws against, 263
among Spanish and French, 255
white-black, 81
intermarriage, white-Indian, vii, 2, 3, 52, 108
abandonment of wives in, 80, 85
as common in West, 5, 9, 48, 49–50, 81
condemnation of, 9, 48, 49, 81–85
fur trade and, 48–50
love matches in, 50
misperceptions about, 82–83
political, social, and economic benefits of, 49–50, 51
shifting social perceptions of, 83–84
social hierarchy in, 50
International Exhibit of Fine and Applied Arts by Deaf Artists, 220
Irish, 34, 267
Itomot’ahpi Pikun’i (Big Bend; Killed Off the Piegans), 127
Ives, George, 159
Jackson, Andrew, 42, 45, 56–57, 66, 69, 137, 259
Jackson, Rachel, 66, 259
Jackson, Thomas “Stonewall,” 54–55
Jefferson, Thomas:
expansionist goal of, 11–14
grid system proposal of, 19
in Louisiana Purchase, 11–12, 15, 19
racism toward African Americans by, 49
support of white-Indian intermarriage by, vii, 48
Jefferson River, 30
Jesuits, 78, 92, 143
John L. Clarke Western Art Gallery and Memorial Museum, 239–40, 240
Johns, William “Billy,” 150, 151
John Two Guns White Calf (Two Guns), 222–24, 224
Joseph, Chief, 162
journals:
of Kurz, 90
of Lewis and Clark, 14
Kah-ta-Nah, 77
Kainahs (Bloods; many chiefs), 14
Kansas City, Mo., 153
keelboats, 38–39, 77
Kent (dog), 202
Kentucky, 19
Kills-on-the-Edge (Mary Monroe), 148
Kipp, Darrell Robes, 178, 284
Kipp, James, 37–39
racially mixed marriage of, 50, 80, 117, 145, 256
Kipp, Joe, 116–17, 119, 123, 127, 165
decline and death of, 147–48
eulogy for, 163
Marias Massacre testimony of, 147–49
mistaken identity of, 125–26, 143–44, 145, 146
Kipp, Richard “Dick,” 147–49
ksisskstaki (beaver), 26
Kurz, Rudolph Friederich, 51, 90
Kutenais, 26, 89
Lambert, Kirby, 236
Lame Bull’s Treaty, 89, 95
land-grant college act, 166
land grants:
for M. Clarke, 96
for military, 71, 260
in Ohio Valley, 19
Lane, Franklin K., 149
Lane, Harry, 148
Lange, Dorothea, 227
Langford, Nathaniel, 103
Laocoön Group, 218
Last Chance Gulch, 92
lauan (Philippine mahogany), 227–28, 231
Laussat, Pierre Clément de, 10–12
Leaves of Grass (Whitman), 83
Lee, James, 77–78
Lee, Robert E., 93, 132
Leonid meteor shower, 40–41
Lewis, Fort, 78
Lewis, Henry, 61
Lewis, Meriwether, 13–19, 21, 92, 243
in violent encounter with Piegans, 15–18, 30
Lewis and Clark expedition, see Corps of Discovery expedition
Liberator, 137
Liguest, Pierre Laclède, 13
Lincoln, Abraham, 41, 113, 155, 274
lipreading, 203–4
Lisa, Manuel, 30–33
Little Beard, 27
Little Beaver, see Culbertson, Alexander
Little Bighorn, Battle of, 162
Little Dog (Imata-Koan; J. D. Rockefeller, Jr.), 216–17
Little Dog (murdered Piegan headman), 96–97
Little Dog (Piegan chief), 186–87
Little Six, 63–65
Logan, John, 136
Lone Star Republic, 70
Long Beard, 27
Longstreet, James, 54
Louisiana Purchase, 10–13, 16, 19
lynchings, 87, 88, 159
lynching tree, 87
Makes Cold Weather, 235
malaria, 171
Mandans, 14, 80, 144
manualism, oralism vs., 203–4
Manuel, Fort (Fort Raymond), 30, 31
Many Glacier, J. L. Clarke’s studio at, 212
Marias Massacre (Baker Massacre), 2, 5, 108, 109–10, 112, 125–27, 130, 138, 142, 142, 145–46, 148, 271–72
accolades for, 130–31
aftermath of, 128–30
bicentennial ceremony of, 249
commemoration at site of, 152, 152
controversy of, 130–33, 136–37
heirs’ compensation claim in, 147–51
humanitarian Indian reform spurred by, 137–41
Joe Kipp’s guilt and blame for, 143–45
lack of recognition of, 144
tally debate in, 127–28, 147–50
as tragic mistake, 125–27, 143–45, 148, 150, 161
Marias River, 16, 25, 37, 39, 74, 78, 117, 121, 123
Marigny, Bernard de, 10
Marland, E. W., 171
Maximilian of Wied, Prince, 40, 41, 43–45, 44, 47, 74
McAlpin Hotel, 187
McCarthy, Cormac, 4
McFatridge, Arthur, 147–48
McFee, Malcolm, 241–43
McKay, Walton, 128
McKenzie, Fort, AFC post at, 8, 10, 39, 41, 50, 51, 73–78, 74, 255
McKenzie, Kenneth, 34–60, 253, 256
ambition and determination of, 37, 39
as bourgeois of Fort Union, 36–37, 38, 72
as “King of the Missouri,” 36, 39
racially mixed marriage of, 50, 89
savvy and charisma of, 34, 36
McKenzie, Owen, 71–73, 89–91
McKinley, William, 179
Meade, George, 116
Meagher, Thomas F., 92, 96, 157, 267–68, 279
Medicine Line, 109, 126
Medicine Lodge Creek, 113
medicine women, 47
Merrilies, Meg (character), 157–58
Métis, as distinct racial group, 3, 84, 265
Mexican-American War, 83, 258
Mexico:
muralists of, 228
and Texas Revolution, 68–71
Michigan, 19
Midvale, Mont., Horace Clarke’s home at, 5, 146, 183–85, 184, 193, 200, 205, 207
see also East Glacier Park, Mont.
military, U.S.:
atrocities against Indians by, 2
in transfer initiative, 134–37, 140
see also Army, U.
S.
Milk River, 91
Miller, Emma, 147
Miller, John, 71
mining, 177
see also gold
Minneapolis, Minn., 60
Minnesota, 19
Minnesota River, 60
missionaries, 78–79, 82, 85, 140
Mississippi River, 12, 13, 20, 60, 64, 70
Missouri, 20
Missouri Fur Company (MFC), 31–33
Missouri River, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 27, 31, 35, 40, 41, 43, 47, 50, 84, 97, 121
M. Clarke in upper region of, 71–85
Mistakis (Rocky Mountains), 21
Mitchell, David, 39, 40
Mix, Tom, 210
Modern Blackfeet: Montanans on a Reservation (McFee), 243
Mohicans, 48
Montana, 8
author’s visit to, 1–3
changing demographics of, 162–63
in fur trade era, 10, 30, 35
Helen Clarke as drawn home to, 6, 147, 158–66, 177–78, 184–94
J. L. Clarke’s nearly lifelong residency in, 197, 209
M. Clarke in Upper Missouri region of, 71–85
political evolution of, 86–87
politics in, 163–65
race war in, 93–97
threat to settlers in, 111–12
as transformed by gold rush, 86–89
in turmoil, 106
Montana, University of, 196
Montana Deaf and Dumb Asylum, 206–7
Montana Historical Society (MHS), 1, 93, 152, 159, 195–97, 196, 236–37, 239
Montana School for the Deaf and Blind, 196, 222
Montana School for the Deaf and Dumb, 222
Montana State Capitol, 235–36
Montana Vigilance Committee, 87, 88, 159
Monteath, James H., 185–86
Montezuma, 85
Morgan, Bob, 238–39
Morgan, Thomas J., 170–71, 175
Morill, Justin, 166
Mountain Chief, 116, 119, 123, 126, 128, 150
Heavy Runner mistaken for, 125–27
son of, 97, 100–101
mourning, Indian rituals of, 25, 147
Museum of the Plains Indian, 231, 233, 235
J. L. Clarke’s friezes for, 231, 233, 234
mutilation of corpses, 32, 45, 64, 95
Napi (Old Man; Creator), 21, 26, 250
napikwans (“old man persons”; whites), 28, 41–42, 46, 49, 51, 125
Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 11, 14
Natawista, marriage of Culbertson and, 50, 52, 53, 72–73, 83, 257
National Anti-Slavery Standard, 138
Native Americans, see Indians
Navajos, J. L. Clarke’s marketing use of, 216
Nebraska, 171
Nebraska, University of, 2
Nellie Rogers, 90–91
Ne-so-ke-i-u (Four Bears), see Clarke, E. Malcolm
Ne-tus-che-o, see Owl Child, Pete
Never Laughs, 52
New Deal, 228, 291
New France, 27
New North-West, 110, 131
New Orleans, La., 10–11, 33, 65, 70
“New Policy,” 185
New York, N.Y., 212, 220–21
Blackfeet tourist promotion in, 187
theater in, 4, 153, 155–56; see also Clarke, Helen P. “Nellie,” stage career of
as transportation hub, 20, 32
New York Times, 132–33, 136
Nez Perces, 89, 162, 217
Reservation allotted for, 170
Nez Perce War, 103
Niagara Falls, 65
Nichols, Alice, 164
nita’piwaskin (“real food”; buffalo meat), 22
Northampton, Mass., 203
North Dakota, 14, 27, 29, 35
North Dakota School for the Deaf (NDSD), 201–4, 207
Northern American West:
adventure-seeking in, 5
Blackfeet control of, 12, 15
harsh climate of, 29, 109, 113, 118, 120, 121–23, 130
incorporated into U.S., 5, 19–20
influx of whites into, 1–2, 18–19, 32, 42, 59, 62, 83–84, 86, 88, 94, 95, 121, 162–63, 171, 177
M. Clarke’s childhood in, 60–65
Southwest compared to, 24
Northern Pacific railroad, 182
North West Company (NWC), 28–29, 48, 124
Northwest Ordinance, 19
Oberammergau, Bavaria, 218
Ohio, 40
Ohio River and Valley, land grants in, 19, 20
oil, discovery of, 171, 180, 245
oil barons, 171
Ojibwas, 37, 62–63
Oklahoma, 172, 282
oil discovered in, 171, 180
Omahkoyis (Big Tree Lodge; Glacier Park Lodge), 183
101 Ranch, 180
“150% men,” 243, 244
O’Neill, Mary, 190
oralism, manualism vs., 203–4
Orozco, José Clemente, 228
Otoe-Missourias:
allotment of, 6, 171, 173–75, 175, 178–81, 192
background of, 282
Owl Child, Pete, 98–102, 109, 117, 128, 184, 255
Owl Woman, 4
Owyhee Avalanche, 131
“Palace of the Prairie,” 171
Parker, Ely, 132
Peace Commission, 135, 138
peace medals, 14, 16, 126
Pease, William B., 131–32, 140
Pennsylvania, 20, 168–70, 200
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 212, 218, 219, 289
Pericles, 165
Phil Kearny, Fort, 122
Phillips, Wendell, 139
Piegan, Fort, building and burning of, 39
Piegans, 2, 74, 92, 108, 112, 185
Assiniboine attack on, 43–45, 44
burial customs of, 147
childhood of, 45
Coulter’s encounter with, 30–31
friezes depicting traditional life of, 227–31
fur trade and, 8–9, 39
gender-based roles of, 46–47
as “Glacier Indians,” 190
and guns, 24–25
Helen Clarke’s generosity to, 191
Horace Clarke’s ambivalence toward, 5–6
horses owned by, 24
Joe Kipp scorned by, 143–44
Lewis’s violent encounter with, 15–18, 30
as local color, 183, 223
in Marias Massacre, 109–10, 125–33, 136, 137
in M. Clarke’s murder, 5, 7
population of, 25
in race war, 94–97
renaming of landscape features by, 193–94
as “scabby robes,” 14
smallpox among, 43
in tribal warfare, 25–26, 96–97
U.S. Army campaign against, 105–6, 114–30
U.S. relations with, 15
violence against, 76–77
warrior image of, 25–26
white intruders as viewed by, 9, 28–29
Piegan War, 93–97
Pikunis, see Piegans
Piotopowaka (the Bird That Comes Home), see Clarke, Helen P. “Nellie”
piskun (buffalo jump), 22, 228–29, 230
Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL), 204, 211, 212, 227
Plassmann, Martha, Horace Clarke’s interview with, 141–43, 145–46, 151
Platte River, 30, 115
Plummer, Henry, 88
pneumonia, 192
Pocahontas, 243
Poe, Edgar Allan, 55
Poinsett, Joel, 71
Point, Nicolas, 78–79
politics:
in Montana, 163–65
in temperance movement, 42
see also specific parties
polygyny, 46, 80, 92–93, 256
Poncas, allotment of, 6, 171–72, 174–75, 178, 179–81, 192
Ponca Trail of Tears, 171
ponokaomita (“elk dog”; horse), 23
Potomac, Army of the, 116
Potts, John, 30, 31
Prairie du Chien, Treaty of (1825), 63
Pratt, Richard Henry, 167–70, 169
Prickly Pear Valley, 120
Clarke ranch at, 92, 97, 98, 104, 105, 146, 151–52
Priest Butte, 122
printing press, 203
public opinion:
backlash in, 115, 121, 129, 131–33
humanitarian, 134, 137–40
Purdy, W. Frank, 212
Quebec, founding of, 27
racial classification, 3, 82
racially blended people, 142
bias against, 82–83, 154–55, 161–63, 165, 186, 189, 197, 214, 264
Blackfeet predominance of, 242–43
commercial promotion through heritage of, 215–16
contemporary challenges of, 245
enclaves of, 84–85
evolving gulf between whites and, 162–63, 165, 197
in government bureaucracy, 189–90
Helen Clarke as champion of, 154, 178, 193
lack of documentation of, 3, 45, 52, 84
rejection of heritage by, 237
social dislocation of, 4, 155, 158–59, 161, 164, 185
two worlds of, 4, 6, 150, 191, 194, 237, 242–45
see also specific individuals
Racine, Albert, 226, 231
railroads, 20, 65, 89, 116, 143, 181
Railsback, Edmund O., 164
Rapid City, S.Dak., 231
Raymond, Fort (Fort Manuel), 30, 31
Reconstruction era, 2, 164, 244
Red Horn, 123
Red Man, 170
Red River, 84–85, 115
reform, reformers:
abolitionist, 137–41, 166, 275
for black suffrage, 162
Indian, 114, 115, 121, 137–41, 225, 227; see also allotment policy; Carlisle Indian School
misguided paternalistic goals of, 167–68, 174
in temperance movement, 42
Republican Party, 161, 163, 166, 179
reservations:
breakup of, see allotment policy
depiction of life on, 153–54
as goal of reform, 114
Riplinger (fur trader), 124
Rivera, Diego, 228
robe press, 37
Roblin, Charles, 186–87
Rockefeller, Abby, 217
Rockefeller, David, 217, 290
Rockefeller, John D., as patron of J. Clarke, 6, 197, 216–18, 219, 223
Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 216–17
Rocky Mountain goat, carvings of, 207, 211, 217, 219, 225, 235, 239, 240
Rocky Mountains, 21, 40, 48, 92, 113, 121, 123, 146, 177, 183
Rolfe, Thomas, 243
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 227
Roosevelt, Theodore, 167, 181, 183
Ross, Reuben, 71
Royle, Edwin Milton, 153–55
Rupert’s Land, 28
Russell, Charles Marion, 225, 236, 289
buffalo skull icon of, 210
marriage of, 214
support for J. L. Clarke by, 209–11, 213, 215, 222
Russell, Nancy, 214
Sacagawea, 14, 243
Saint-Domingue (Haiti), slave uprising on, 11
St. Francis, Wis., 207
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