Kings of the Hohenstaufen line were still acknowledged as titular absentees until 1268. M. Lower, The Barons’ Crusade: A Call to Arms and its Consequences (Philadelphia, 2005); P. Jackson, ‘The crusades of 1239–41 and their aftermath’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 50 (1987), pp. 32–60.
Rothelin Continuation, ‘Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr de 1229 à 1261, dite du manuscrit de Rothelin’, RHC Occ. II, pp. 563–4. This text is available in translation: J. Shirley (trans.), Crusader Syria in the Thirteenth Century (Aldershot, 1999), pp. 13–120.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 565.
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, vol. 4, p. 397. On Louis IX’s career and crusade see: J. Richard, Saint Louis: Crusader King of France, trans. J. Birrell (Cambridge, 1992); W. C. Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade: A Study in Rulership (Princeton, 1979); J. Strayer, ‘The Crusades of Louis IX’, A History of the Crusades, vol. 2, ed. K. M. Setton (Madison, 1969), pp. 487–518; C. Cahen, ‘St Louis et l’Islam’, Journal Asiatique, vol. 258 (1970), pp. 3–12. On Louis’ piety see: E. R. Labande, ‘Saint Louis pèlerin’, Revue d’Histoire de l’Église de France, vol. 57 (1971), pp. 5–18.
John of Joinville, Vie de Saint Louis, ed. J. Monfrin (Paris, 1995). This text is available in translation: C. Smith (trans.), Chronicles of the Crusades: Joinville and Villehardouin (London, 2008). See also: C. Smith, Crusading in the Age of Joinville (Aldershot, 2006). A wonderfully rich collection of additional western and Arabic primary sources is available in translation in: P. Jackson (trans.), The Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (Aldershot, 2007). See also: A.-M. Eddé, ‘Saint Louis et la Septième Croisade vus par les auteurs arabes’ Croisades et idée de croisade à la fin du Moyen ge, Cahiers de Recherches Médiévales (XIIIe–XVes), vol. 1 (1996), pp. 65–92.
Jordan, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade, pp. 65–104.
John of Joinville, p. 62; J. H. Pryor, ‘The transportation of horses by sea during the era of the Crusades’, Commerce, Shipping and Naval Warfare in the Medieval Mediterranean, ed. J. H. Pryor (London, 1987), pp. 9–27, 103–25.
John of Joinville, p. 72
John of Joinville, pp. 72–6.
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, vol. 6, Additamenta, p. 158; Rothelin Continuation, p. 590; John of Joinville, p. 78; P. Riant (ed.), ‘Six lettres aux croisades’, Archives de l’Orient Latin, vol. 1 (1881), p. 389.
Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols, pp. 239–307.
Nizam al-Mulk, The Book of Government or Rules for Kings, trans. H. Darke (London, 1960), p. 121; Ibn Wasil, The Seventh Crusade, trans. P. Jackson, p. 134; D. Ayalon, ‘Le régiment Bahriyya dans l’armée mamelouke’, Revue des Études Islamiques, vol. 19 (1951), pp. 133–41; R.S. Humphreys, ‘The emergence of the Mamluk army’, Studia Islamica, vol. 45 (1977), pp. 67–99.
John of Joinville, p. 90; Ibn Wasil, The Seventh Crusade, trans. P. Jackson (Aldershot, 2007), p. 141.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 596; Ibn Wasil, The Seventh Crusade, pp. 133–40; Historiae Francorum Scriptores ad Ipsius Gentis Origine, ed. A. du Chesne, vol. 5 (Paris, 1649), p. 428.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 600; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, vol. 6, Additamenta, p. 195; John of Joinville, pp. 100–102.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 602.
Rothelin Continuation, pp. 603–4.
Rothelin Continuation, pp. 604–5; Ibn Wasil, The Seventh Crusade, p. 144.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 606; John of Joinville, pp. 110, 116.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 608; John of Joinville, pp. 142–4.
John of Joinville, pp. 144, 150; Rothelin Continuation, p. 609.
Rothelin Continuation, p. 610. It is perhaps possible that, in these dark days, King Louis IX moved beyond rational decision making, turning instead to God, to pray for a miracle. Such a circumstance was far from inconceivable in the context of a crusade. But given Louis’ views on the need to balance divine aid with practical human responsibility, it is unlikely that he would simply rely on supernatural intervention.
Sibt ibn al-Jauzi, The Seventh Crusade, trans. P. Jackson (Aldershot, 2007), p. 159; John of Joinville, p. 150.
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, vol. 6, Additamenta, p. 195; John of Joinville, pp. 156–8.
Sibt ibn al-Jauzi, The Seventh Crusade, p. 160; John of Joinville, p. 166.
Historiae Francorum Scriptores ad Ipsius Gentis Origine, p. 429.
PART V: VICTORY IN THE EAST
D. Ayalon, Le phénomène mamelouk dans l’orient Islamique (Paris, 1996); R. Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk–Ilkanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge, 1995). The classic study of Baybar’s career is: P. Thorau, The Lion of Egypt: Sultan Baybars I and the Near East in the Thirteenth Century, trans. P. M. Holt (London, 1992). See also: A.A. Khowaiter, Baybars the First (London, 1978). For a translation of excerpts from Ibn ‘Abd al-Zahir’s biography of Baybars see: S. F. Sadaque, The Slave King: Baybars I of Egypt (Dacca, 1956). D. P. Little, An Introduction to Mamluk Historiography (Montreal, 1970); P. M. Holt, ‘Three biographies of al-Zahir Baybars’, Medieval Historical Writing in the Christian Worlds, ed. D. Morgan (London, 1982), pp. 19–29; P. M. Holt, ‘Some observations on Shafi‘ b. ibn ‘Ali’s biography of Baybars’, Journal of Semitic Studies, vol. 29 (1984), pp. 123–30; Y. Koch, ‘Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad and his biography of Baybars’, Annali dell’Istituto Universitario Orientale, vol. 43 (1983), pp. 249–87.
D. Morgan, The Mongols, 2nd edn (Oxford, 2007); J.-P. Roux, Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire (London, 2003); P. Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (Harlow, 2005); J. Richard, La papauté et les missions d’Orient au Moyen ge (Rome, 1977); J. D. Ryan, ‘Christian wives of Mongol khans: Tartar queens and missionary expectations in Asia’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd series, vol. 8.3 (1998), pp. 411–21; P. Jackson, ‘Medieval Christendom’s encounter with the alien’, Historical Research, vol. 74 (2001), pp. 347–69.
D. Morgan, ‘The Mongols in Syria, 1260–1300’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 231–5.
P. Jackson, ‘The crisis in the Holy Land in 1260’, English Historical Review, vol. 95 (1980), pp. 481–513; Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks, pp. 26–48; J. M. Smith, ‘Ayn Jalut: Mamluk success or Mongol failure’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, vol. 44 (1984), pp. 307–47; P. Thorau, ‘The battle of Ayn Jalut: A re-examination’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 236–41.
Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 75–88.
Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 91–119.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 225–46; D. P. Little, ‘Jerusalem under the Ayyubids and Mamluks 1197–1516 AD’, Jerusalem in History, ed. K. J. Asali (London, 1989), pp. 177–200.
Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 103–5.
P. M. Holt, ‘The treaties of the early Mamluk sultans with the Frankish states’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. 43 (1980), pp. 67–76; P. M. Holt, ‘Mamluk–Frankish diplomatic relations in the reign of Baybars’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, vol. 32 (1988), pp. 180–95; P. M. Holt, Early Mamluk Diplomacy (Leiden, 1995).
D. Ayalon, ‘Aspects of the Mamluk phenomenon: Ayyubids, Kurds and Turks’, Der Islam, vol. 54 (1977), pp. 1–32; D. Ayalon, ‘Notes on Furusiyya exercises and games in the Mamluk sultanate’, Scripta Hierosolymitana, vol. 9 (1961), pp. 31–62; H. Rabie, ‘The training of the Mamluk Faris’, War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, ed. V.J. Parry and M. E. Yapp (London, 1975), pp. 153–63.
The sultan also tried, but failed, to develop an elephant cavalry. Efforts were made to construct a Mamluk fleet–Islam having enjoyed little or no presence on the Mediterranean since the Third Crusade–but Baybars’ ships seem to have been relatively poorly designed, and most sank during a later attempt to assault Cyprus.
Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, p. 168.
‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, Recueil des historiens des croisades, Documents armé
niens, vol. 2, ed. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Paris, 1906), p. 766. This text is translated in: P. Crawford (trans.), The ‘Templar of Tyre’: Part III of the ‘Deeds of the Cypriots’ (Aldershot, 2003).
Ibn ‘Abd al-Zahir, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), pp. 310–12.
William of Saint-Parthus, Vie de St Louis, ed. H.-F. Delaborde (Paris, 1899), pp. 153–5.
Ibn al-Furat, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 319.
S. Lloyd, ‘The Lord Edward’s Crusade, 1270–72’, War and Government: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwich, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge, 1984), pp. 120–33; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 124–-32.
Thorau, The Lion of Egypt, pp. 225–9, 235–43.
L. Northrup, From Slave to Sultan: The Career of al-Mansur Qalawun and the Consolidation of Mamluk Rule in Egypt and Syria (678–689 A.H./1279–1290 A.D.) (Stuttgart, 1998); P. M. Holt, ‘The presentation of Qalawun by Shafi‘ b. ibn ‘Ali’, The Islamic World from Classical to Modern Times, ed. C. E. Bosworth, C. Issawi, R. Savory and A. L. Udovitch (Princeton, 1989), pp. 141–50.
Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks, pp. 179–201.
Richard, The Crusades, pp. 434–41; P. M. Holt, ‘Qalawun’s treaty with the Latin kingdom (682/1283): negotiation and abrogation’, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras, ed. U. Vermeulen and D. de Smet (Leiden, 1995), pp. 325–34.
Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 342; R. Irwin, ‘The Mamluk conquest of the county of Tripoli’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 246–50.
Richard, The Crusades, pp. 463–4.
Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, pp. 344–5; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, p. 811; D. P. Little, ‘The fall of ‘Akka in 690/1291: the Muslim version’, Studies in Islamic History and Civilisation in Honour of Professor David Ayalon, ed. M. Sharon (Jerusalem, 1986), pp. 159–82.
Abu l-Mahasin, Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli (London, 1969), p. 347; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, pp. 812, 814; Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 346.
Abu l-Mahasin, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 349; ‘Les Gestes des Chiprois’, p. 816; J. Delaville le Roulx (ed.), Cartulaire général de l’ordre des Hospitaliers 1100–1310, vol. 3 (Paris, 1899), p. 593; Abu’l Fida, Arab Historians of the Crusades, p. 346.
CONCLUSION: THE LEGACY OF THE CRUSADES
M. Barber, The Trial of the Templars (Cambridge, 1978); N. Housley, ‘The Crusading Movement, 1274–1700’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 260–93; N. Housley, The Later Crusades (Oxford, 1992).
E. Siberry, Criticism of Crusading, 1095–1274 (Oxford, 1985). Historians have yet to demonstrate whether or not the warfare carried out during the crusading era was unusually violent or extreme in comparison to other medieval conflicts. This is one fundamental area of enquiry in which further research is urgently needed.
For a readable attempt to place crusading within the wider context of Christian and Muslim relations see: R. Fletcher, The Cross and the Crescent (London, 2003).
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 257–429; Housley, Contesting the Crusades, pp. 144–66; C. J. Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom: Holy War and the Crusades (Oxford, 2004), pp. 79–92, 155–70.
C. J. Tyerman, ‘What the crusades meant to Europe’, The Medieval World, ed. P. Linehan and J. L. Nelson (London, 2001), pp. 131–45; Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom, pp. 145–54.
J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination, 8 November 1898–11 September 2001’, Crusades, vol. 2 (2003), p. 166.
Constable, ‘The Historiography of the Crusades’, pp. 6–8; Tyerman, The Invention of the Crusades, pp. 99–118.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 589–600; R. Irwin, ‘Islam and the Crusades, 1096–1699’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 217–59.
E. Siberry, ‘Images of the crusades in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades, ed. J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Oxford, 1995), pp. 365–85; E. Siberry, The New Crusaders: Images of the Crusades in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Aldershot, 2000); E. Siberry, ‘Nineteenth-century perspectives on the First Crusade’, The Experience of Crusading, 1. Western Approaches, ed. M. G. Bull and N. Housley (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 281–93; R. Irwin, ‘Saladin and the Third Crusade: A case study in historiography and the historical novel’, Companion to Historiography, ed. M. Bentley (London, 1997), pp. 139–52; M. Jubb, The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography (Lewiston, 2000).
Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination’, pp. 155–6. This desire to reconnect with the medieval past found further expression at Versailles, outside Paris. King Louis Philippe of France dedicated five rooms–the Salles des Croisades–of this palace to monumental paintings depicting scenes from the crusades. French nobles with a family history of crusading were permitted to display their coats of arms in these chambers, and 316 emblems were originally hung when the Salles opened in 1840. However, voluble protests over exclusion meant that they were closed, almost immediately, for another three years, so that additional aristocratic dynasties could be represented. This prompted a furious trade in forged documents purporting to prove crusading pedigree, supplied (for a handsome price) by a sharp-witted opportunist named Eugène-Henri Courtois. These forgeries remained undetected until 1956.
Siberry, ‘Images of the crusades in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, pp. 366–8, 379–81; Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination’, pp. 151–2; J. Richard, ‘National feeling and the legacy of the crusades’, Palgrave Advances in the Crusades, ed. H. Nicholson (Basingstoke, 2005), pp. 204–22.
Siberry, ‘Images of the crusades in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’, pp. 382–5.
E. Sivan, ‘Modern Arab Historiography of the Crusades’, Asian and African Studies, vol. 8 (1972), p. 112; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 590–92; Riley-Smith, ‘Islam and the crusades in history and imagination’, p. 155.
Sivan, ‘Modern Arab Historiography of the Crusades’, pp. 112–13.
B. Lewis, ‘License to Kill: Usama bin Ladin’s Declaration of Jihad’, Foreign Affairs (November/December 1998), p. 14.
Sivan, ‘Modern Arab Historiography of the Crusades’, p. 114; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 592–600.
E. Karsh, Islamic Imperialism (London, 2006), pp. 134–5; U. Bhatia, Forgetting Osama bin Munqidh, Remembering Osama bin Laden: The Crusades in Modern Muslim Memory (Singapore, 2008), pp. 39–40, 53.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 600–602; Bhatia, Forgetting Osama bin Munqidh, Remembering Osama bin Laden, pp. 23, 52–3.
SEARCHABLE TERMS
Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.
(page numbers in italic type refer to maps)
Aachen, 550
Abaq, 246–7, 248
Abaqa, 639, 640, 643, 644, 648
Abd al-Ghani, 341
‘Abd al-Latif Hamza, 675
Abd al-Zahir, 623
Abdulhamid II, 674
al-Abiwardi, 113
Abraham, 18, 91, 250, 362
Abu Abdallah, 640
Abu Sulaiman Dawud, 301
Abu’l Fida, 651, 652, 653, 655, 656
Abu’l Haija the Fat, 276, 277, 410, 419, 425–6, 490, 500, 502, 506
Acre, 90, 117, 182, 221, 305, 318, 319, 393, 399, 450, 451, 538, 547–9, 576, 619, 633
as pilgrimage destination, 549<
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Baldwin I’s 1104
siege of, 124
book production in, 549
Cursed Tower at, 400, 438, 439, 654
Genoese sailors try to take control of, 492
Great Siege of, 398–420, 399, 422–8, 430–4, 436–46, 662 (see also Acre: Siege of)
battle for the sea during, 412–15
conclusion of, 441–3
crusaders’ strategy for, 437–9
definitive breach in, 440–1
effect of city’s fall after, 445–6
first battle in, 405–8
hiatus in, 410–13
inhabitants on edge of starvation during, 414
Latins’ hunger, illness and deaths during, 424–5
negotiation during, 441–3
Saladin–Richard diplomatic exchanges during, 434
struggle on land during, 415–16
walls rebuilt after, 456
independence declared by residents of, 572
James of Vitry elected new bishop of, 536
The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land Page 78