by Jung Chang
1 Churchill: Kimball, p. 287.
2 Izvestia: “Some Facts Concerning the Situation in China”; cf. ORK, 13 & 15 Mar. 1945. “Haven’t you liked”: ORK, 26 Feb. and 5 March1945.
3 “chop my head off”: 31 May 1945, in Yang Kuisong 1997, pp. 519–20. “Stalin the leader”: unpublished sections of Mao speeches at the 7th Congress, 1945, in Yang Kuisong 1999, pp. 206–7. In Apr.: order of 13th, Jinchaji Base Committee & Central Archive, vol. 3, p. 276; order of 18th, in Niu Jun, p. 164. Dispatching troops: Xiao Ke, in YQD, p. 126; Shi Zhe 1991, p. 305.
4 –278 Russian help, CCP occupied: Borisov 1982, p. 166; Zakharov, map opposite p. 68; Tsedenbal, p. 169, n. 3; Westad 1993, pp. 77ff; Jinchaji Base Committee & Central Archive, vol. 3, pp. 285–90; Xiao Ke, in YQD, p. 126; Duan Suquan, p. 278. “If we have Manchuria”: 31 May 1945, Mao 1995, pp. 218–19.
5 Atwood, in Kotkin & Elleman, pp. 141ff; Luzianin, pp. 41–2; Hao Weimin, pp. 437–8.
6 Secret CCP circular: Zeng Kelin, pp. 112–13. Bonanza in soldiers: Borisov 1977, pp. 76, 168; Liu Tong, pp. 42–3. America’s China policy: Roosevelt cited in Wallace, p. 333, & Snow 1968, pp. 126–9; FRUS 1945, vol. 7, p. 177 (Hurley to Roosevelt, 14 Jan. 1945).
7 Stalin cabled Mao to go to Chongqing: interview with Kapitsa, who saw the cables, 21 June 1995; id. 1995, pp. 13–14; id. 1996, pp. 21–4; Borisov 1982, p. 85; Liu 2000, p. 105; interview with Shi Zhe, 10 Oct. 1995; Chiang — Mao telegram exchanges, in Chiang, pp. 2639, 2647, 2651, Mao 1993b, vol. 3, pp. 7, 9, 12. Chen Li-fu: interview, 15 Feb. 1993. Chang Chen: Kapitsa interview. Hurley escorts: Mao cable to Wedemeyer, 25 Aug. 1945, Mao 1993b, vol. 3, p. 13; Morwood, p. 7. Ordering a battle: Mao 1993b, vol. 3, p. 13; Hu Qiaomu, p. 421; Liu Bocheng, p. 300; cf. Tikhvinsky 2000, book 2, pp. 220–4 (minutes of Mao — Petrov talk, 10 Oct. 1945; Mao — Petrov 6 Sept. talk, ibid., pp. 230–3). Moment of panic: Kapitsa 1996, pp. 23–4; cf. FRUS 1945, vol. 7, p. 466 (Hurley to Mao, 19 Sept. 1945).
8 One observer: Morwood, p. 11. Carton de Wiart: Carton de Wiart to Ismay, 6 Sept. 1945, Attlee Papers, Box 23, folio 48–9, Bodleian Library; cf. Carton de Wiart 1950, pp. 269–70. Wedemeyer: Milton Miles Papers, NARA, RG 38, Naval Group China, Box 40, Folder: Chinese Communists, pp. 3, 6 (Minutes of Mao — Wedemeyer talk, 30 Aug. 1945).
9 –281 “worse than beasts”: Chiang, p. 2688. Keep Chiang out of Manchuria: Mao order, 19 Oct. 1945, ZZWX vol. 15, p. 364. Russians fly CCP secretly to Manchuria: Sidikhmenov MS, pp. 15–18; interview with Sidikhmenov (on the plane), 24 June 1996. Russians to handle ports, airports: cable, 28 Oct. 1945, in Yang Kuisong 1997, p. 543. CCP fire on US ships: Wedemeyer, p. 345; Westad 1993, p. 106; Liu Tong, p. 62. “decisive battle”: Mao cables, 14 & 15 Nov. 1945, Mao 1993a, vol. 3, pp. 141–4. Lamented proudly: WZX, no. 42, p. 23.
10 –282 “US-style”: Huang Kecheng cable, in Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 105–6. Material enticements: Chen Yi in Zhang Zhenglong, p. 35; also Liu Tong, p. 34. Abysmal morale, desertion: quotes from Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 34–8.
11 –283 Over 40,000: ibid., p. 103. Liu had instructed: Liu 1996, vol. 1, p. 507; also on 24 Sept., Liu Tong, p. 41. Mao overruled Liu: ZZWX vol. 15, p. 364. Another order: 23 Oct., Liu Tong, p. 46.
12 “sudden change”: Chiang, p. 2727. They told the CCP: on 19th, Liu 1996, vol. 1, pp. 530–1. Stalin returning Mao’s son: NA, HW 17/63 (18 Nov. 1945, ISCOT 1475). Entreaties to Russians: Mao cable to Peng Zhen, 20 Nov. 1945, quoted in Borisov 1975, p. 107. Futile orders to troops: 22 Nov., Zhang Zhenglong, p. 111. Mao nervous breakdown: Liu cable, Liu 1996, vol. 1, p. 531; Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 313–14; interview with Shi Zhe, 29 Sept. 1993.
13 Yan Changlin, p. 136; Mao 1993b, vol. 3, p. 227.
14 –284 Dr. Orlov: CWH vol. 1, no. 1 (2000), p. 132 (Stalin cable to Molotov et al., 10 Nov. 1945); ORK, p. 544; Vlasov, p. 202; Ledovsky 1999, p. 79, n.2; Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 316–17. An-ying: Usov 1997, p. 114; Usov 1992, p. 56; Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 315–16. Affectionate towards son, recovery: interview with Mrs. George Hatem, 17 Mar. 1998; Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 316–17.
15 –285 Russians coordinated departure with CCP: Westad 1993, pp. 148, 156ff; Sheng, pp. 132ff; Russian — CCP exchanges can be seen from Mao cable of 24 Mar. 1946, ZZWX vol. 16, p. 100; Yang Kuisong 1997, pp. 560–4; Chiang, p. 2822. Hold out in key cities: Mao cables from 24 Mar. 1946 onwards, in Mao 1993a, vol. 3, pp. 153, 177–8, 190, 198, etc., esp. on 20 Apr., in Liu Tong, p. 170; 27 Apr., in Zhang Zhenglong, p. 154. Liu cautioned: e.g., 13 Mar. 1946, Liu 1996, vol. 2, p. 26. Lin Biao warned: 11 Apr. 1946, in Zhang Zhenglong, p. 154, also pp. 186–7. Army disintegrated: ibid., pp. 170–2; Liu Tong, pp. 194–5.
16 Lin Biao reported: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 104. “We were hungry”: ibid., pp. 166–9. “Big Hairy Ones”: ibid., p. 179. 1 June, Lin: ibid., p. 184, Liu Tong, p. 203. Next day: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 184.
17 Mao — Stalin: Liu 2000, pp. 106–7; Kozlov & Mironenko, p. 173. 3 June: Mao 1993a, vol. 3, p. 250.
CHAPTER 28 Saved by Washington
1 Change Party name: ORK, 12 Aug. 1944. Molotov to Hurley: FRUS 1944, vol. 6, p. 255 (31 Aug. 1944); cf. FRUS 1945, vol. 7, p. 448 (Kennan, 18 Aug. 1945, reporting Stalin).
2 “tactic of expedience”: 28 Nov. 1945, ZZWX vol. 15, p. 455.
3 Soft-soaped Marshall: FRUS 1945, vol. 7, p. 804 (23 Dec. 1945 Marshall — Chou meeting). “rather go to the US”: FRUS 1946, vol. 9, p. 152; Hu Qiaomu, pp. 428–9. Marshall told Chiang: FRUS 1945, vol. 7, p. 814. Told US Congress: Tsou, p. 368. US had intercepts: “COMINT,” pp. 4, 6; texts of 1945–47 intercepts: NA, HW 17/67. Three-word alarm: FRUS 1946, vol. 9, p. 777 (Yeaton, 15 Apr. 1946).
4 –289 An-ying to village: Shi Zhe 1991, p. 316; interviews with Shi Zhe, Oct. 1995. An-ying interview: RR, 20 Feb. 1990; Roderick, e-mail to authors, 12 Oct. 2000; cf. Roderick, p. 40. Marshall illusions: FRUS 1946, vol. 9, pp. 510 (Marshall to Truman, 6 Mar.), 501–2 (Marshall minutes of talk with Mao, 4 Mar.), 541, 542 (Marshall Memo to Truman, 13 Mar.). Mao briefs Orlov: Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 318–19. 31 May, Marshall: FRUS 1946, vol. 9, p. 926.
5 –290 “Hang on”: 5 June 1946, Mao 1993a, vol. 3, p. 251. Concurred in private: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 189; cf. Liu Tong, p. 516. Chiang noted: 29 June 1946, Chiang, p. 2950. Truman wrote to Chiang: US Department of State White Paper, p. 652.
6 –291 “Be like Franco”: interview with Chen Li-fu, 15 Feb. 1993. Comfortable armchair: YQD, pp. 166, 270. Classified figures: Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 420–1. “now an idiot”: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 318.
7 Russian help: Lyudnikov, p. 308; Vereshchagin, p. 18; Zimonin, p. 47 (new figures for Japanese arms captured); Borisov 1977, pp. 229–30, 233, 248, 256, 264; APRF, 39/1/39, pp. 64–73 (Mao to Mikoyan, 5 Feb. 1949); cf. FEA no. 3, 1995, p. 78; Ledovsky interviews, June 1995ff; documents in ZS vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 596–615; Liu Tong, pp. 304–5; Zhang Zhenglong, p. 216. Japanese POWs: Gillin with Etter, pp. 511–15; Zimonin, p. 47; FRUS 1946, vol. 9, p. 813; Sang Ye, p. 91; Zeng Kelin, pp. 126–33; Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 221–2.
8 –292 North Korea: summary of CCP offices in North Korea during the civil war, based on archive documents and memoirs, ZDZ, no. 17, pp. 197–210; details of the Korean troops in China, ZS vol. 7, no. 1, p. 616; Chen Jian 1994, pp. 107–9; NA, WO 208/281. Restoring railways: Tikhomirov & Tsukanov in Akimov; Silin, ibid., pp. 215–18; Borisov 1977, pp. 242ff; Kovalev 2004, p. 132; id. 1992a, p. 102. Mao told Lin Biao: 11 July 1946, Mao 1993a, vol. 3, p. 334. Moscow disinformation: TASS, “Refutation,” Pravda, 19 Oct. 1946, p. 6. Mao claim: SW vol. 4, p. 101 (6 Aug. 1946).
9 –293 Mao paid with food: Liu Shao-chi letter to Stalin, 6 July 1949 (FEA, no. 5, 1996, pp. 87–8); cf. Vereshchagin, p. 19; Borisov 1977, p. 232 (Russian imports from CCP areas exceed exports to these areas, 1948, 1949); Wang Shoudao and Liu Yalou talks, in Liu Tong, pp. 517–19. The result was famine: YQD, pp. 49, 59; Zhao Guilai, pp. 207, 223; Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 237, 433–6. Mao urged seizing big cities: Xiao Ke 1997, pp. 340–50; Mao 1993a, vol. 3, pp. 277, 283–4, 290.
10 “merciless and devious”: interview with an insider, 6 Sept. 1998. Up to 100,000:
Zhang Zhenglong, pp. 234–8.
CHAPTER 29 Moles, Betrayals and Poor Leadership Doom Chiang
1 1 Mar.: Chiang, p. 3149. Hu suspected of being Communist: Hsu Chen1990, pp. 39–40.
2 Hsu Chen 1990, p. 39; Mao 1993–9, vol. 5, p. 322; Shi Zhe 1991,p. 249.
3 –296 Hu friendship with Tai Li: Meng Bingnan, in WZX vol. 18, p. 133; Zhang Yanfo, in WZX vol. 64, pp. 105–7. On Mao’s desk: Zhou 1991, p. 723. Mao leisurely departure: Yan Changlin, pp. 53–6. 20,000 men: Peng 1981, pp. 44–5 (E: Peng 453ff. and re below); cf. Quan, pp. 13ff; Party Documents, pp. 229–30.
4 Qinghuabian ambush: Yan Changlin, pp. 58–64; Wang Enmao, vol. 5, pp. 95–8; Nationalist generals’ accounts, CPPCC 1992, pp. 115–16, 154–5.
5 –297 Yangmahe ambush: Nationalist generals’ accounts, CPPCC 1992, pp. 118–20, 156–8; Peng cable to Mao, 16 Apr. 1947, Peng 1998, pp. 340–1; Party Documents, p. 233. Panlong: Nationalist generals’ accounts, in CPPCC 1992, pp. 120–4, 159–61; Hsu Chen 1990, p. 321; Peng 1981, p. 248; Party Documents, p. 233; Wang Enmao, vol. 5, pp. 119–20. “horrible stench”: Hsu Chen 1987, p. 254.
6 –298 Mao in Yenan area a year: Yan Changlin, pp. 64ff; Zhao Guilai, pp. 99ff; Wang Dongxing 1993, pp. 8ff; Ren Bishi, pp. 538ff; Shi Zhe 1991, pp. 337–52; interviews with Mao’s entourage, 4 Sept. 1998 & 19 Apr. 1999; cf. Quan, pp. 29–34, 37–8. Artillery battalion: interview with a former member of the battalion, 29 Oct. 2000. Yet another ambush: Hsu Chen 1987, pp. 251–3. Close shave: Yan Changlin, pp. 94–117; Hu Qiaomu, pp. 490–3; Zhao Guilai, pp. 124–6; member of entourage Liao Zhigao, in “Mao and I” Collection Committee 1993a, p. 46; interviews with Mao’s entourage, 13 Mar. & 4 Sept. 1998, 19 Apr. 1999, 12 May 2001.
7 Hu ordered troops away: Zhao Guilai, pp. 134–5; Yan Changlin, p. 117; Hsu Chen 1990, p. 318. Stalin offers plane: APRF, 39/1/31, p. 23 (Kuznetsov to Orlov 15 June 1947); cf. Ledovsky 1995a, p. 74; Shi Zhe1991, pp. 345–6.
8 “On 9–11”: 14 June 1947, Mao 1993a, vol. 4, pp. 101–2. Ordered airstrip: 27 June 1947, Shi Zhe 1991, p. 345. Liou death: Wang Yan et al., pp. 348–54; Wang Ying-tsun account, in CPPCC 1992, pp. 243–9. Chiang diary of 2 Mar.: Chiang, p. 3400. Turned down Hu resignation: Chiang, pp. 3407–9.
9 Barr: US Department of State, White Paper, p. 326; cf. US Senate, p. 67 (Barr: Nationalists “always permitted themselves to get surrounded”). “so I waited”: Shi Zhe 1991, p. 365. Hu impeachment, failed: Central Daily, Taipei, 19–22 May 1950; Hsu Chen 1990, pp. 385–93.
10 Hau Po-tsun: interview, 2 Oct. 1996. Wei Li-huang: Titov, vol. 3, p. 453 (Mao message to Comintern, Dec. 1940); Wei’s Communist secretary Zhao Rongsheng, in Biographical Literature Pub., vol. 2, pp. 68–85; Wei’s son Daoran, in CPPCC (Beijing), p. 442; Stokes fax to authors, 4 June 1998.
11 –302 Wei coordinated with CCP: through his nephew, French-trained nuclear scientist Wang Dezhao, Wu Jiangxiong, pp. 1, 4, 10–13. Mao’s strategy: 7 Feb. 1948, Mao 1993a, vol. 4, p. 391; Lin Biao concurred on 10th, Liu Tong, pp. 559–60. Wei therefore: Nationalist commanders’ accounts, CPPCC 1985b, pp. 9–13, 52, 60–1; Zheng Dongguo, pp. 472–80. “wise guidance”: CPPCC (Beijing), pp. 443–4. Contacted the CIA: Singlaub, pp. 151–5, 534, n. 1. Mao in withering terms: Mar. 1964, IIR, p. 503.
12 Fu’s daughter: Titov 1995, pp. 82ff; Tikhvinsky 2002, pp. 7–11; OIRVR vol. 5, pp. 398–401; her CCP handler, in Biographical Literature Pub., vol. 1, pp. 415–24. Nov. 1948, Fu decided to surrender: Mao cable, 18 Nov. 1948, in Beijing Archive, p. 43; CPPCC 1993, pp. 280–2, 309. “terror and tyranny”: China Magazine, Jan. 1949, pp. 17, 18 (Fu, “Message to the People of North China,” 12 Nov. 1948). Fall to pieces: Biographical Literature Pub., vol. 1, p. 423; interview with General I Fu-en, 1 June 1998. Chiang, 12 Dec.: Chiang, p. 3549.
13 Strung Fu along: CPPCC 1993, pp. 282ff, chronology pp. 460–2; Mao cables, 27 Dec. 1948–9 Jan. 1949, Beijing Archive, pp. 52–9. “ ‘Play it by ear’ ”: CPPCC 1989, p. 95.
14 Opened up gateway: Chang Shun et al., p. 656. Liu Fei: interview with Chen Li-fu, 15 Feb. 1993; Liu Chi, p. 171. Kuo Ju-kui: his own account, in Biographical Literature Pub., vol. 1, pp. 249–57; CPPCC 1996, pp. 15–35; interview with Chiang Weigo, 4 Oct. 1996.
15 “Pai Chung-hsi”: APRF, 39/1/31, pp. 54–8 (Orlov to Kuznetsov, 10 Jan. 1949); cf. Malukhin 1977, p. 123. “created in summer”: APRF, 39/1/31, p. 60 (Mao to Stalin 10 Jan. 1949). Require each new enlistee: Hu Qiaomu, pp. 523–6; e.g., Mao order, 7 Jan. 1948, Mao 1991, pp. 1264–6 (E: Mao, SW vol. 4, pp. 177–9).
16 Under T.V.: articles in contemporary newspapers; Hsu Yung-chang, vol. 8; interview with I Fu-en, 6 Oct. 1996; and with Mao Chia-hua, 6 Oct. 1996. Chiang acknowledged: 25 Oct. 1945, Chiang, p. 2698.
17 Central Daily: Lu Keng, pp. 159–80.
CHAPTER 30 China Conquered
1 “Turn Changchun”: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 441. Evacuate civilians: Zheng Dongguo, pp. 500–4; Mayor Shang Chuandao, in CPPCC 1985b, pp. 396, 403. “Strictly ban”: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 441. “nice sort of guy”: Chang Shun et al., p. 134.
2 Lin Biao reported to Mao: 9 Sept. 1948, in Liu Tong, pp. 635–6; Zhang Zhenglong, p. 469.
3 Lin order, 11 Sept.: in Liu Tong, p. 639. One survivor remembered: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 479. Changchun mayor recorded: CPPCC 1985b, p. 403.
4 –308 Death toll: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 467; Zheng Dongguo, p. 500; Liu Tong, p. 638. A Red veteran: Zhang Zhenglong, p. 482. “refugee rules”: ibid., p. 486. Su Yu: Su Yu, p. 622.
5 CPPCC 1985b, p. 403.
6 225 million kg: Su Yu, p. 642. Nationalist veteran recalled: Sang Ye, pp. 90–1.
7 “without getting tired”: 8 May 1946, Central Archive 1981, p. 7.
8 Kang Sheng in Haojiapo: Cheng Min, pp. 221–31, Zeng Yanxiu, pp. 115–18.
9 Woman official described: interview, 16 Oct. 1993.
10 –311 Wire run through nose: Zhong Kan, p. 101. “entire families”: Sang Ye, pp. 13, 14–15. Reports to Mao: Central Archive 1981, pp. 101, 129. Mao saw: Zhao Guilai, pp. 237–9. “Everyone is terrified”: Central Archive 1981, p. 129. 10 percent: ibid., pp. 121, 124.
11 Melby, p. 243 (17 Oct. 1947).
12 –312 Shandong to bear logistics: Su Yu on Huai — Hai campaign, DDWX, 1989, no. 6., p. 10. Second land reform: Zhong Kan, pp. 103–5; Gao 2001, p. 242. An-ying under Kang Sheng: Shi Zhe 1992, p. 224; Jin Zhenlin, pp. 199, 225. An-ying diaries: 14 Apr., 5 & 6 Nov. 1947, handwritten, unpublished.
13 –313 Wrote to father: Jin Zhenlin, p. 210. An-ying notes about rallies: 16 Dec. 1947, handwritten, unpublished. Circulated reports: 9 & 20 Jan. 1948, Central Archive 1981, pp. 98–102, 128–31. Mao wrote Liu: ibid., pp. 261–2.
14 Liu caved in: Liu speech, and Mao remarks at Politburo, 13 Sept. 1948, DDWX, 1989, no. 5, pp. 8–9; Liu, 12 Mar. 1949, Liu 1981, p. 419 (E: Liu, SW vol. 1, p. 417). Nationalist captain: Hsu Chen 1987, pp. 341–3.
15 Nationalist student wrote: Zhuanji wenxue (Biographical Literature), Taipei, no. 245, pp. 28–30. Mao told Mikoyan: APRF, 31/1/31, 31 Jan. 1949. Russian consul noted: Malukhin 1989, pp. 30–1; cf. AVPRF, 0100/43/302/4, p. 118 (Tikhvinsky report, 26 Jan. 1950). Lin Biao told Russians: AVPRF, 0100/43/302/4, p. 130 (Tikhvinsky report, 26 Jan. 1950); cf. Kulik 1994, p. 117.
16 –315 Chiang to ancestral home: our visit to Xikou, Nov. 2000; Chiang, pp. 3632–3; entourage memoirs, in WZX, no. 66, pp. 84–90. Mao issued order: 6 May 1949, Mao 1993–9, vol. 5, p. 290. Mao — Stalin exchange re Taiwan: Kovalev 1992a, p. 108; Ledovsky 1996a, p. 71 (Liu report to Stalin, 4 July 1949); cf. Goncharov et al., p. 70. No scorched-earth: Song Honggang, pp. 302ff., China Today 1993, p. 24. “Old Mr. Chiang”: Lu Keng, p. 180.
17 Ledovsky 1996a, p. 69 (Stalin to Liu, 27 June 1949); id., 1996b, pp. 89–91 (Mao cable 25 July 1949); cf. Goncharov et al., pp. 69–70.
18 “Labour University”: Zhang Suizhi, p. 71; CCP Beijing Haidian Committee, p. 248. System so slick: Berezhkov, pp. 365–6.
19 de Segonzac, p. 115.
20 Mrs. Lo Fu described: Liu Ying, p. 154.
21 The only spee
ch: Mao 1993–9, vol. 6, pp. 1–2; sound recording issued.
CHAPTER 31 Totalitarian State, Extravagant Lifestyle
1 “man without law”: New China (USA), summer 1975, p. 27 (Chou, 1971 interview with W. Hinton); Snow 1974, p. 149 (Mao, 10 Dec. 1970). “demand for further”: Bao & Chelminski, pp. 78–9, 100. “campaign to suppress”: Mao orders, CCP Archive Study Office & Central Archive, 1949–52, pp. 235–49. His police chief: Huang & Zhang, p. 263. “small Chiang Kai-sheks”: Mao 1977, p. 317 (E: Kau & Leung, p. 163). “massive arrests”: 24 Mar. 1951, Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 192. Criticized one province: ibid., pp. 62–3.
2 –319 30 Mar.: ibid., p. 202. Peking alone: Han Yanlong, p. 95. Woman from Britain: Cheo Ying, pp. 56–61. Trucks dripping blood: Loh, p. 66. “labour force”: 8 May 1951, Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 281 (E: Kau & Leung, p. 189). Lao-gai: interviews with ex-inmates; Bao & Chelminski; Rummel, pp. 228–33 (estimates).
3 700,000: Mao, 27 Feb. 1957, Mao CCRM, vol. 1, p. 198 (E: MacFarquhar et al., p. 142).
4 –320 Report to Mao: Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 115. Bizarre alert: Huang & Zhang, p. 261.
5 10 million: Rummel, p. 232; Margolin, p. 498. Soviet diplomat: Ledovsky 1990, p. 128; cf. ibid., pp. 96–7, 99; Kulik 1994, esp. pp. 120–2.
6 –321 A small landowner: Yuan Maogeng, pp. 13–80. Mao repeatedly said: Apr. 1956, Mao CCRM, vol. 1, p. 138; 24 Mar. 1951, Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 192. Execution of two foreigners: Lum, pp. 83ff; Domenach 1992, pp. 74, 654, n. 37.
7 Chou “apology”: Kahn, p. 239; Service letter to authors, 8 Aug. 1994 and interview, 23 Apr. 1995. Mao interest in Vatican: Nenni, pp. 697–9; Malaparte, pp. 136ff; Barca interview, 2 June 1994; Pesce interview, 28 May 1994.
8 “Three-Antis”: many Mao orders in Mao 1987–98, vol. 3. “We must probably execute”: 8 Dec. 1951, Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 549. “Whoever disobeys”: 4 Jan. 1952, Mao 1987–98, vol. 3, p. 12. Mao enjoined: 8 Dec. 1951, Mao 1987–98, vol. 2, p. 549. Mao kept informed: Mao 1987–98, vol. 3, pp. 134, 167, 177, 195–7. Bamboo pliers: Ledovsky 1990, p. 93, confirmed by Ledovsky, interview, 19 June 1996.