Worldmaking
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55. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 55.
56. Isaacson, Kissinger, 111, 113.
57. Schlesinger, Journals, 1952–2000, 124.
58. Kissinger, White House Years, 39–40.
59. Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century, 176.
60. Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger, 14.
61. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 56.
62. See Goldberg, Barry Goldwater.
63. Isaacson, Kissinger, 117–19.
64. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 57.
65. Ibid., 57–59.
66. Isaacson, Kissinger, 123.
67. Henry Kissinger to Hans Morgenthau, November 13, 1968, Papers of Hans J. Morgenthau, box 33.
68. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 15.
69. Isaacson, Kissinger, 137.
70. Kissinger, White House Years, 15.
71. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and Walt Rostow, January 13, 1970, Kissinger Telcons, reel 3.
72. Interview with Paul H. Nitze, April 20, 1982, Papers of Paul H. Nitze, box 118.
73. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 91.
74. Isaacson, Kissinger, 148.
75. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 764.
76. Haig, Inner Circles, 201.
77. Isaacson, Kissinger, 192.
78. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 23.
79. Isaacson, Kissinger, 139.
80. Patterson, Grand Expectations, 735.
81. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 243.
82. Nixon, “Asia After Viet Nam,” 121, 123.
83. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 222.
84. Dominic Sandbrook, “Salesmanship and Substance: The Influence of Domestic Politics and Watergate,” in Logevall and Preston, Nixon on the World, 88.
85. Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century, 161.
86. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 240.
87. Kissinger, White House Years, 61–62.
88. Kennan, diary entry, May 6, 1966, GFKP, box 236.
89. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 617.
90. Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost, 293, 295.
91. Ibid., 299.
92. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 331.
93. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 199.
94. Isaacson, Kissinger, 209.
95. Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century, 225.
96. Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost, 309, 313.
97. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 357.
98. Transcript of telephone conversation between President Nixon and Kissinger, May 17, 1972, FRUS: 1969–1976, 14:922.
99. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 226.
100. Nitze, From Hiroshima to Glasnost, 328–29.
101. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 621.
102. Zumwalt, On Watch, 490.
103. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 359.
104. Interview with Paul H. Nitze, October 31, 1985, Box 119, Papers of Paul H. Nitze.
105. See Clark, The Chinese Cultural Revolution, and Spence, The Search for Modern China.
106. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 583.
107. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 55.
108. Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century, 183–84.
109. See Griffin, Ping-Pong Diplomacy.
110. Kissinger, White House Years, 727.
111. Ibid., 728.
112. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 292.
113. Memorandum for Henry A. Kissinger, “Memcon of Your Conversations with Chou En-lai,” July 29, 1971, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book no. 66, document 34, 4, www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB66/ch-34.pdf.
114. Ibid., 22.
115. Ibid., 40.
116. Ibid., 41.
117. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 242.
118. For an evocative account of Nixon’s visit, see Macmillan, Nixon and Mao.
119. A fine recording of Nixon in China is Marin Alsop conducting the Colorado Symphony Orchestra in 2008. Naxos American released this three-CD box set in 2009.
120. See Kissinger, White House Years, 1053–1056.
121. Nixon, RN, 560.
122. For a detailed account of this historic (and occasionally surreal) conversation, see Tyler, A Great Wall, 130–34.
123. Keys, “Henry Kissinger: The Emotional Statesman,” 600.
124. Kissinger, White House Years, 787.
125. Memorandum from Henry Kissinger to Richard Nixon, “My Asian Trip,” February 27, 1973, FRUS: 1969–1976, 18:203–204.
126. Kissinger, On China, 25.
127. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 295.
128. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 243.
129. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 370.
130. www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1861543_1861856_1861867,00.html.
131. In Sideshow the journalist William Shawcross makes a strong case that the American bombing of Cambodia in 1969 and 1970 helped set the stage for the rise of Pol Pot. Since 1994, Yale University has been home to a Cambodian Genocide Program, www.yale.edu/cgp/ (from which my statistics are drawn).
132. www.archives.gov/research/military/vietnam-war/casualty-statistics.html#year.
133. A damning critique of Nixon and Kissinger’s failure to achieve “peace with honor” is Berman, No Peace, No Honor.
134. Schulzinger, A Time for Peace, 75.
135. Kissinger, “The Viet Nam Negotiations,” 218–19, 234.
136. Kissinger, White House Years, 227–28.
137. Ibid., 110.
138. Henry Kissinger to Hans Morgenthau, November 13, 1968, Papers of Hans J. Morgenthau, box 33.
139. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 121–24.
140. Isaacson, Kissinger, 177.
141. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 62.
142. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and Walt Rostow, November 11, 1970, Kissinger Telcons, reel 6.
143. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 444.
144. George F. Kennan, May 10, 1972, KD, 473.
145. William Broyles, “The Road to Hill 10: A Veteran’s Return to Vietnam,” The Atlantic, April 1, 1985.
146. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 452.
147. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, xiv.
148. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and Richard Nixon, October 17, 1973, Kissinger Telcons, reel 19.
149. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 396.
150. For a firsthand account, see Snepp, Decent Interval.
151. Kennan, The Cloud of Danger, 96.
152. See Hixson, The Myth of American Diplomacy, 222, and Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 229.
153. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 787.
154. Kissinger, White House Years, 654.
155. Schulzinger, Doctor of Diplomacy, 132–33.
156. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 787.
157. Schulzinger, Doctor of Diplomacy, 134.
158. Hanhimäki, Flawed Architect, 104.
159. Stern, Remembering Pinochet’s Exile, xxi.
160. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 514.
161. On this harrowing episode, see Saikia, Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh.
162. Bundy, A Tangled Web, 269–70.
163. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 341, 343, 346.
164. Nixon, RN, 527.
165. Bundy, A Tangled Web, 291.
166. For a powerful attack on Nixon and Kissinger’s approach to the conflict, see Bass, The Blood Telegram.
167. Memorandum of Conversation with Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, et al., November 12, 1973, in Burr, The Kissinger Transcripts, 182.
168. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 363.
169. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 1152.
170. “Impeachment Politics May Cost Nitze Pentagon Post,” The New Yor
k Times, May 22, 1974.
171. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 364: Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 1152.
172. George F. Kennan, August 8, 1974, KD, 484.
173. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and Richard Nixon, October 24, 1973, Kissinger Telcons, reel 19.
174. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 610.
175. Isaacson, Kissinger, 596.
176. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 622.
177. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 246.
178. Ibid., 259.
179. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and J. William Fulbright, September 22, 1973, Kissinger Telcons, reel 19.
180. Isaacson, Kissinger, 666.
181. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 107–108.
182. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 1212.
183. Isaacson, Kissinger, 603.
184. Conversation between Henry Kissinger and George Kennan, September 14, 1973, Kissinger Telcons, reel 18.
185. Brinkley, Gerald R. Ford, 108.
186. “Ford vs. Solzhenitsyn,” The New York Times, July 4, 1975, 22.
187. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 258.
188. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 651.
189. Speech by Henry Kissinger, “The Moral Foundation of Foreign Policy,” July 15, 1975, Papers of Daniel Patrick Moynihan, box I, 337.
190. John Lewis Gaddis, “Grand Strategies in the Cold War,” in Leffler and Westad, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, 2:18. The most important books on the Helsinki process are Thomas, The Helsinki Effect, and Sarah B. Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Network (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
191. Isaacson, Kissinger, 662.
192. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 624.
193. Isaacson, Kissinger, 658, 665.
194. Sandbrook, Mad as Hell, 97.
195. Kissinger, Ending the Vietnam War, 493.
196. Isaacson, Kissinger, 647–48. The full transcript of the interview is available at www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0204/1511947.pdf.
197. Sandbrook, Mad as Hell, 97.
198. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 261.
199. Callahan, Dangerous Capabilities, 377.
200. Sandbrook, Mad as Hell, 191.
201. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Gerald R. Ford, 1976–1977, 2409–10.
202. Ibid., 2416–17.
203. “Ford Comeback Fatally Stalled by 2nd Debate, Pollster Says,” Deseret News, November 9, 1976, 2.
204. Isaacson, Kissinger, 704.
205. Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 617.
206. See www.henryakissinger.com/eulogies/042794.html.
8. The Worldmaker: Paul Wolfowitz
1. On Pipes in particular and Sovietology in general, see Engerman, Know Your Enemy.
2. Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 203.
3. Paul H. Nitze to Zbigniew Brzezinski, March 26, 1976, Papers of Paul H. Nitze, box 70.
4. Anne Hessing Cahn, Killing Detente, 158.
5. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 74.
6. See Rovner, Fixing the Facts, chap. 6.
7. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 75–76.
8. Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 202.
9. Packer, The Assassins’ Gate, 25; Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 198–99.
10. Solomon, Paul D. Wolfowitz, 10.
11. Bloom’s best-known work, The Closing of the American Mind, offers an impassioned defense of the teaching of philosophy through a “canon” and denigrates the woolly, relativist direction of U.S. higher education.
12. Anne Norton notes that “other students regarded the [Telluride] circle as a Straussian cult,” in Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire, 59.
13. Paul Wolfowitz interview with Sam Tanenhaus, Vanity Fair, May 9, 2003, www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2594.
14. Paul Wolfowitz interview with Nathan Gardels, Los Angeles Times, April 29, 2002, www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=3435.
15. John Cassidy, “The Next Crusade: Paul Wolfowitz at the World Bank,” The New Yorker, April 9, 2007, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/09/070409fa_fact_cassidy.
16. Lane, “Plato, Popper, Strauss and Utopianism,” 119.
17. Kim Sorensen, Discourses on Strauss: Revelation and Reason in Leo Strauss and His Critical Study of Machiavelli (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006), 178.
18. Leo Strauss, “Relativism,” in Harry V. Jaffa, Crisis of the Strauss Divided, 171.
19. Paul Wolfowitz interview with Sam Tanenhaus, Vanity Fair, May 9, 2003.
20. For a selection of Albert and Roberta Wohlstetter’s writings on nuclear strategy, see Zarate and Sokolski, Nuclear Heuristics.
21. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 30.
22. Paul D. Wolfowitz, “Nuclear Proliferation in the Middle East: The Politics and Economics of Proposals for Nuclear Desalting” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1972), 32–33, quoted in Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 30–31.
23. See Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, and Hersh, The Samson Option.
24. See Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 30–32.
25. Cassidy, “The Next Crusade.”
26. Ibid., 12. Also see Paul Wolfowitz, “Statesmanship in a New Century,” in Kagan and Kristol, Present Dangers, 315; and Milne, America’s Rasputin, 249–54.
27. Packer, The Assassins’ Gate, 26.
28. On Carter’s presidency, see Smith, Morality, Reason and Power; Glad, An Outsider in the White House; and Kaufman, Plans Unraveled.
29. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 275.
30. Herken, “The Great Foreign Policy Fight,” 77.
31. Talbott, The Master of the Game, 149.
32. Paul Nitze to Zbigniew Brzezinski, March 26, 1976, Papers of Paul H. Nitze, box 70.
33. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 81.
34. Solomon, Paul D. Wolfowitz, 26.
35. Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy, 283, 286.
36. Westad, The Global Cold War, 294.
37. For a recent history of the Iranian revolution and its aftermath, see Buchan, Days of God.
38. Hamilton, American Caesars, 329–30.
39. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 643.
40. Solomon, Paul D. Wolfowitz, 26.
41. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 98.
42. Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 204.
43. Thompson, The Hawk and the Dove, 278–79.
44. Ibid., 273.
45. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 109.
46. Solomon, Paul D. Wolfowitz, 46.
47. Frances X. Clines and Warren Weaver, “Briefing,” The New York Times, March 30, 1982, 12. See also Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 115.
48. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 116.
49. See Rodgers, Age of Fracture, chapter 1, for an insightful discussion of the ideational taproots of Reagan’s rhetoric.
50. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 651–53.
51. Speech by Ronald Reagan, March 8, 1983, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan, 1983 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1983), 363–64.
52. See Scott, Deciding to Intervene, and Garthoff, The Great Transition.
53. Greg Schneider and Renae Merle, “Reagan’s Defense Buildup Bridged Military Eras,” The Washington Post, June 9, 2004, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26273-2004Jun8.html. Also see Mann, The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan.
54. FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue, 39.
55. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan, 1982, 746–48.
56. Cannon, President Reagan, 272.
5
7. Kirkpatrick, “Dictatorships & Double Standards,” Commentary, November 1, 1979, www.commentarymagazine.com/article/dictatorships-double-standards/.
58. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph, 320.
59. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 130, 92.
60. Ibid., 132–34.
61. Henry A. Kissinger, “What Next When U.S. Intervenes?,” Los Angeles Times, March 9, 1986.
62. See LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions.
63. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 136.
64. Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 207.
65. Reagan, An American Life, 611.
66. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 668.
67. See Wilson, The Triumph of Improvisation.
68. See Adelman, Reagan at Reykjavic.
69. Cannon, President Reagan, 779–81.
70. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 158.
71. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 898.
72. Cannon, President Reagan, 755.
73. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 612.
74. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 898–99.
75. Paul Wolfowitz, “How the West Won,” National Review, September 6, 1993, 62.
76. Lukacs, George Kennan, 181.
77. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 671.
78. For a well-reasoned recently published history of the end of the Cold War, see Wilson, The Triumph of Improvisation. Sarotte’s 1989 is a nuanced account of a pivotal year.
79. Gaddis, George F. Kennan, 671.
80. Cheney, In My Time, 162. For a study of the relationship between Cheney and George W. Bush, see Baker, Days of Fire.
81. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 170.
82. Mary McGrory, “Kennan—A Prophet Honored,” The Washington Post, April 9, 1989, B1.
83. Kennan’s testimony can be viewed in its entirety at www.c-spanvideo.org/program/6952-1.
84. George H. W. Bush, “Commencement Address at Texas A&M University,” May 12, 1989, http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3421.
85. Jon Margolis, “Bush Carries Labels That Don’t Really Fit,” Chicago Tribune, March 22, 1988.
86. On the conflict and aftermath, see Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, and Gordon and Trainor, The Generals’ War.
87. Immerman, Empire for Liberty, 214.
88. Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, 184.
89. Ibid., 185.