Mosquito Soldiers
Page 17
January 11—U.S. forces capture Arkansas Post
January 20–22—Burnside’s “Mud March” (Va.)
March 3—Lincoln signs Draft Bill
March 17—Battle of Kelly’s Ford (Va.)
April 2—Bread Riot in Richmond (Va.)
April 7—Flag Officer Samuel Du Pont attacks Charleston (S.C.)
April 16—Federal fleet floats past Vicksburg (Miss.)
April 17—Grierson’s Raid begins (Miss.)
May 1–4—Battle of Chancellorsville (Va.); Battle of Port Gibson (Miss.) on May 1 (part of Grant’s Vicksburg Campaign)
May 10—Stonewall Jackson dies
May 12—Battle of Raymond (Miss.) (Vicksburg Campaign)
May 14—Battle of Jackson (Miss.) (Vicksburg Campaign)
May 16—Battle of Champion’s Hill (Miss.) (Vicksburg Campaign)
May 17—Battle of Big Black River Bridge (Miss.) (Vicksburg Campaign)
May 18—Vicksburg siege begins (Miss.)
May 21—Port Hudson siege begins (La.)
June 9—Battle of Brandy Station (Va.)
June 14–15—Battle of Second Winchester (Va.)
July 1–3—Battle of Gettysburg (Pa.)
July 4—Confederates surrender Vicksburg (Miss.); Lee withdraws
from Gettysburg (Pa.)
July 8—Confederates surrender Port Hudson (La.)
July 11–13—New York City draft riots
September 10—U.S. forces capture Little Rock (Ark.)
September 19–20—Battle of Chickamauga (Ga.)
November 19—Lincoln delivers his Gettysburg Address (Pa.)
November 24—Battle of Lookout Mountain (Tenn.)
November 25—Battle of Missionary Ridge (Tenn.)
November 26—Meade’s Mine Run Campaign begins (Va.)
1864
February 14—U.S. forces capture Meridian (Miss.)
February 20—Battle of Olustee (Fla.)
March 1—Federal cavalry raid on Richmond fails (Va.)
March 9—Grant is promoted to lieutenant general
March 11—Red River Campaign begins (La.)
April 8—Battle of Sabine Crossroads (La.)
April 9—Battle of Pleasant Hill (La.)
April 12—Fort Pillow captured by Confederates (Tenn.)
May 5–6—Battle of the Wilderness (Va.)
May 7—Sherman’s Atlanta Campaign begins (Ga.)
May 8–19—Battle of Spotsylvania Court House (Va.)
May 11—Battle of Yellow Tavern (Va.)
May 14–15—Battle of Resaca (Ga.) (Atlanta Campaign); Battle of New Market (Va.) on May 15
May 16—Battle of Drewry’s Bluff (Va.)
May 23–26—Battle of North Anna (Va.)
May 31–June 3—Battle of Cold Harbor (Va.)
June 14—Battle of Pine Mountain (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
June 18—Petersburg siege begins (Va.)
June 27—Battle of Kennesaw Mountain (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
July 9—Battle of Monocacy (Md.)
July 14—Battle of Tupelo (Miss.)
July 20—Battle of Peachtree Creek (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
July 22—Battle of Atlanta (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
July 28—Battle of Ezra Church (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
July 30—Battle of the Crater (Va.); Confederates burn Chambersburg (Pa.)
August 5–8—Battle of Mobile Bay (Ala.)
August 18–19—Battle of Weldon Railroad (Va.)
August 25—Battle of Reams’s Station (Va.)
August 31–September 1—Battle of Jonesboro (Atlanta Campaign) (Ga.)
September 2—U.S. forces occupy Atlanta September 19—Third Battle of Winchester (Va.)
September 22—Battle of Fisher’s Hill (Va.)
September 29–October 2—Battle of Peebles’s Farm; Battle of Fort Harrison on September 29–30 (Va.)
October 19—Battle of Cedar Creek (Va.)
October 23—Battle of Westport (Mo.)
November 8—Lincoln wins second term
November 16—Sherman’s “March to the Sea” begins
November 21—Hood’s March to Tennessee begins
November 30—Battle of Franklin (Tenn.)
December 15–16—Battle of Nashville (Tenn.)
December 20—Sherman captures Savannah (Ga.)
December 24—U.S. forces bombard Fort Fisher near Wilmington (N.C.)
1865
January 15—U.S. forces capture Fort Fisher (N.C.)
January 19—Sherman’s March through the Carolinas begins
February 5–7—Battle of Hatcher’s Run (Petersburg siege) (Va.)
February 17—U.S. forces occupy Columbia (S.C.); Confederates evacuate Charleston (S.C.)
February 22—U.S. forces occupy Wilmington (N.C.)
March 8–10—Battle of Kinston (N.C.)
March 16—Battle of Averasboro (N.C.)
March 19–21—Battle of Bentonville (N.C.)
April 1—Battle of Five Forks (Va.)
April 3—U.S. forces occupy Richmond (Va.)
April 6—Battle of Sayler’s Creek (Va.)
April 9—Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House (Va.)
April 12—Confederates surrender Mobile (Ala.)
April 14—Lincoln shot at Ford’s Theatre (Washington, D.C.)
April 26—Johnston surrenders at Durham Station (N.C.)
May 4—Taylor Surrenders at Citronelle (Ala.)
May 26—Confederate Army of the Trans-Mississippi surrenders at New Orleans (La.)
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. Mark F. Boyd, “An Historical Sketch of the Prevalence of Malaria in North America,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine 21 (March 1941): 234; H. H. Cunningham, Doctors in Gray: The Confederate Medical Service (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1958), 191; Joseph Janvier Woodward, The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion,pt. 2, vol. 1: Medical History (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1879), 1–2, 401–2, 799–800; George Worthington Adams, Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1952), 202.
2. Charles E. Rosenberg, Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 12–13; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), viii–x, 91.
3. Alfred Jay Bollet, Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs (Tucson: Galen Press, 2002), 58–59.
4. Warner, Therapeutic Perspective, 38.
5. Warner, Therapeutic Perspective, 87 (quotation).
6. Dale C. Smith, “The Rise and Fall of Typhomalarial Fever: 1. Origins,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 37 (1982): 182–220.
7. William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1976); Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2001).
8. James I. Robertson Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988).
CHAPTER 1: AEDES, ANOPHELES, AND THE SCOURGES OF THE SOUTH
1. Hudson Strode, Jefferson Davis: American Patriot, 1808–1861 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955), 79–104; Haskell M. Monroe Jr. and James T. McIntosh, The Papers of Jefferson Davis, vol. 1: 1808–1840 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 407–32 (quotation); Zachary Taylor to General Jesup Thomas Sidney, December 15, 1820, Zachary Taylor Papers, 1820–1850, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress; Trist Wood, “Jefferson Davis’ First Marriage,” New Orleans Daily Picayune, August 28, 1910; Varina Davis, Jefferson Davis, Ex-President of the Confederate States of America: A Memoir by His Wife (New York: Belford Co., 1890), 165–71.
2. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, “Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience,” William and Mary Quarterly 41 (April 1984): 213–40; D
aniel Drake, A Systematic Treatise, Historical, Etiological, and Practical, on the Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of North America, as They Appear in the Caucasian, African, Indian, and Esquimaux Varieties of Its Population, ed. Norman D. Levine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964), 703–11; J. D. Rumph, “Thoughts on Malaria, and the Causes Generally of Fever,” Charleston Medical Journal and Review 9 (July 1854): 439–46; William Webb, “On the So-Called Malarious Diseases. A Paper Read before the St. Louis Medical Society,” St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal 12 (December 1854): 481–85.
3. Perfect diagnoses in the absence of laboratory tests are of course impossible, but the location, time of year, and symptoms make it highly probable that the Davises were suffering from Plasmodium falciparum. Robert E. Sinden and Herbert M. Gilles, “The Malaria Parasites,” in Essential Malariology, 4th ed., ed. David A. Warrell and Herbert M. Gilles (London: Arnold, 2002), 8–13; Hisashi Fujioka and Masamichi Aikawa, “The Malaria Parasite and Its Life-Cycle,” in Malaria: Molecular and Clinical Aspects, ed. Mats Wahlgren and Peter Perlmann (Amsterdam: Overseas Publishers Association, 1999), 19–20; S. F. Kitchen, “The Infection in the Intermediate Host: Symptomatology, Falciparum Malaria,” in A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region, ed. Forest Ray Moulton (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941), 196–207; Carol A. Butcher, “Malaria: A Parasitic Disease,” American Association of Occupational Health Nurses Journal 52 (July 2004): 302–9; Sharon Parmet, “Malaria,” Journal of the American Medical Association 291, June 2, 2004, 2664.
4. Donald J. Krogstad, “Plasmodium Species (Malaria),” in Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed., ed. Gerald L. Mandell, John E. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin (Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2000), 2817–29; Margaret Humphreys, Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 9; Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, “Of Agues and Fevers: Malaria in the Early Chesapeake,” William and Mary Quarterly 33 (January 1976): 31–60; Michael Colbourne, Malaria in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 13–16; Richard F. Darsie Jr. and Ronald A. Ward, Identification and Geographical Distribution of the Mosquitoes of North America, North of Mexico (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 286–97; N.R.H. Burgess and G. O. Cowan, Atlas of Medical Entomology (London: Chapman & Hall Medical, 1993), 11–14.
5. Elisha Bartlett, The History, Diagnosis, and Treatment of the Fevers of the United States (Philadelphia: Blanchard & Lea, 1852), 347–99; Edwin Samuel Gaillard, An Essay on Intermittent and Bilious Remittent Fevers: With Their Pathological Relation to Ozone (Charleston: Walker & Evans, Stationers and Printers, 1856), 17–18; Fr. Xavier DeRolette, Lecture on the Fever & Ague and Other Intermittent Fevers (Pittsburgh: A. A. Anderson & Sons, 1865), 5; Drake, Treatise, 703; A. P. Merrill, Lectures on Fever, Delivered in the Memphis Medical College, in 1853–6 (New York: Harper & Bros., 1865), 98; John Duffy, “The Impact of Malaria on the South,” in Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South, ed. Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 29–54.
6. Dale C. Smith, “The Rise and Fall of Typhomalarial Fever: 1. Origins,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 37 (1982): 182–220.
7. The same process can be seen today in South America. In Peru, for example, rainforest destruction is causing an explosion in the number of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. See Anne Underwood, “Tracking Disease,” Newsweek 146, November 14, 2005, 46–48; Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945); Milo Milton Quaife, ed., Growing Up with Southern Illinois, 1820 to 1861, from the Memoirs of Daniel Harmon Brush (Chicago: Lakeside Press, 1944), 15–24 (quotation).
8. Charles Dickens, American Notes for General Circulation, ed. Patricia Ingham (London: Penguin, 2000), 190–91 (quotation); Samuel Thompson, “Malaria and Its Relation to the Existence and Character of Disease,” NorthWestern Medical and Surgical Journal 3 (May 1850): 19–43; C. Handfield Jones, “Considerations Respecting the Operation of Malaria on the Human Body,” Association Medical Journal 187 (August 1856): 668–70; W. H. Martin, “Various Forms of Intermittent Diseases,” Illinois and Indiana Medical and Surgical Journal 2 (1847–48): 407–9; F. P. Leavenworth, “Malaria,” St. Louis Medical & Surgical Journal 12 (January 1854): 35–58; Hiram Nance, “Retrospect of Miasmatic Diseases for a Few Years Past,” Northwestern Medical and Surgical Journal 3 (February 1854): 54–57; J. R. Black, “On the Ultimate Cause of Malarial Disease,” St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal 12 (July 1854): 353–63.
9. Other diseases such as typhoid fever contributed to the fever season in the South and were frequently misdiagnosed as malaria by physicians. See Todd L. Savitt and James Harvey Young, eds., Disease and Distinctiveness in the American South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988); A. Cash Koeniger, “Climate and Southern Distinctiveness,” Journal of Southern History 54 (February 1988): 21–44; Humphreys, Malaria, 11–13; Frederick Law Olmstead, The Cotton Kingdom, ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr. (New York: Random House, 1984), 182–83 (quotation); Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 84–91. For additional information on African genetic immunity to malaria, see Christopher Warren, “Northern Chills, Southern Fevers: Race-Specific Mortality in American Cities, 1730–1900,” Journal of Southern History 63 (February 1997): 23–56; and Kenneth F. Kiple, “A Survey of Recent Literature on the Biological Past of the Black,” Social Science History 10 (Winter 1986): 343–67.
10. Bartlett, History, 388–89; Drake, Treatise, 704–11; Black, “Ultimate,” 358–59; John Greenleaf Whittier, “The Farewell,” quoted in Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself, with an introduction by Peter J. Gomes (New York: New American Library, 1997), 60.
11. “Address of Dr. S. S. Satchwell, on Malaria” in Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of North Carolina, at Its Third Annual Meeting Held in Wilmington, N.C., May, 1852 (Wilmington: T. Loring, 1852), 39–62; Ackerknecht, Malaria, 19; Bartlett, History, 388; Edward Warren, “Observations on Miasmatic Diseases,” American Medical Monthly 2 (October 1854): 241–53; Drake, Treatise, 713; Thompson, “Malaria,” 20–21; Duffy, “Malaria,” 38.
12. William Pepper, On the Use of Bebeerine and Cinchonia in the Treatment of Intermittent Fever (Philadelphia: T. K. and P. G. Collins, 1853), 8–14; James O. Breeden, “Disease as a Factor in Southern Distinctiveness,” in Savitt, Disease and Distinctiveness, 9–11; Rene LaRoche, Pneumonia: Its Supposed Connection, Pathological and Etiological, with Autumnal Fevers; Including an Inquiry into the Existence and Morbid Agency of Malaria(Philadelphia: Blanchard & Lea, 1854), 57, 407–8; Koeniger, “Climate,” 35; David R. Goldfield, “The Business of Health Planning: Disease Prevention in the Old South,” Journal of Southern History 42 (November 1976): 557–70; Richard D. Arnold, An Essay upon the Relation of Bilious and Yellow Fever, Prepared at the Request of, and Read before the Medical Society of the State of Georgia, at Its Session Held at Macon (Augusta: J. Morris, 1856), 4–5; William R. Horsfall, Medical Entomology: Arthropods and Human Disease (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1962), 340.
13. The last yellow fever outbreak to occur north of Virginia happened in New York City in 1822. John Duffy, “Yellow Fever in the Continental United States during the Nineteenth Century,” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 44 (June 1968): 687–701; K. David Patterson, “Yellow Fever Epidemics and Mortality in the United States, 1693–1905,” Social Science and Medicine 34 (1992): 855–65; Jo Ann Carrigan, “Yellow Fever: Scourge of the South,” in Savitt, Disease and Distinctiveness, 55–78.
14. Margaret Humphreys, Yellow Fever and the South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 4–5; S. Rickard Christophers, Aedes Aegypti: The Yellow Fever M
osquito (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 57; Thomas M. Rivers, Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man, 2nd ed., (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1952), 538–44; Andrew Spielman and Michael D’Antonio, Mosquito: A Natural History of Our Most Persistent and Deadly Foe (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 54–61.
15. John Duffy, “Medical Practices in the Ante Bellum South,” Journal of Southern History 25 (February 1959): 53–72; Patterson, “Yellow Fever,” 858; New Orleans Daily Picayune, September 2, 3, and 7, 1853; Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 243–44; Spielman, Mosquito, 63; William L. Robinson, The Diary of a Samaritan. By a Member of the Howard Association of New Orleans (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1860), 121, 259.
16. Savannah Daily Morning News, September 12, 19, 20, 28, and 29, 1854; Charleston Daily Courier, September 16, 1854.
17. D. J. Cain, History of the Epidemic of Yellow Fever in Charleston, S.C., in 1854 (Philadelphia: T. K. & P. G. Collins, 1856), 7–9; Charleston Courier, September 14 and 15, 1854; Savannah Morning News, September 19, 1854; W. L. Felder, “Observations on the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1854, in Augusta, Ga.,” Southern Medical and Surgical Journal 11 (October 1855): 598–608; Patterson, “Yellow Fever,” 858.
18. William McCraven, “The Epidemic Yellow Fever of 1859, in Houston, Texas,” New Orleans Medical News and Hospital Gazette 7 (April 1860): 105–10; Ashbel Smith, “On the Climate, Etc., of a Portion of Texas,” Southern Medical Reports 2 (1850): 453–59; Houston Telegraph, October 13, 1858.
19. Report on the Origin of the Yellow Fever in Norfolk during the Summer of 1855. Made to the City Councils by a Committee of Physicians (Richmond, Va.: Ritchie & Dunnavant, 1857), 20–38; George D. Armstrong, The Summer of Pestilence: A History of the Ravages of the Yellow Fever in Norfolk, Virginia, A.D. 1855 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1856), 94–100; Report of the Portsmouth Relief Association to the Contributors of the Fund for the Relief of Portsmouth, Virginia, during the Prevalence of the Yellow Fever in That Town in 1855 (Richmond, Va.: H. K. Ellyson’s Steam Power Presses, 1856), 129–30; Patterson, “Yellow Fever,” 858.