Mosquito Soldiers

by Andrew McIlwaine Bell

  Robinson, William L. The Diary of a Samaritan. By a Member of the Howard Association of New Orleans. New York: Harper & Bros., 1860.

  Rogers, Stephen. Quinine as a Prophylactic or Protective from Miasmatic Poisoning. Albany, N.Y.: Steam Press of C. Van Benthuysen, 1862.

  Rumph, J. D. “Thoughts on Malaria, and the Causes Generally of Fever.” Charleston Medical Journal and Review 9 (July 1854): 439–46.

  Sanders, Mary Elizabeth, ed. “Letters of a Confederate Soldier, 1862–1863.” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 29 (October 1946): 1229–40.

  Sanitary Report of the Army of Arkansas for the Last Quarter of 1863. U.S. Surgeon General’s Office, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.

  Satchwell, S. S. “Address of Dr. S. S. Satchwell, on Malaria.” Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of North Carolina. Wilmington: T. Loring, 1852.

  Scott, John. Story of the Thirty-second Iowa Infantry Volunteers. Nevada, Iowa: John Scott, 1896.

  Sherman, William T. Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sherman, Written by Himself, Vol. 1. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1891.

  Simons, Thomas Y. An Essay on the Yellow Fever, as It Has Occurred in Charleston, Including Its Origin and Progress up to the Present Time. Charleston, S.C.: Steam Power–Press of Walker and James, 1851.

  Smiley, Thomas T. “The Yellow Fever at Port Royal, S.C.” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 67, January 8, 1863, 449–68.

  Smith, Ashbel. “On the Climate, Etc., of a Portion of Texas.” Southern Medical Reports 2 (1850): 453–59.

  Southern Historical Society Papers. 52 vols. Richmond, Va.: Southern Historical Society, 1876–1959.

  Sperry, A. F. History of the 33d Iowa Infantry Volunteer Regiment, 1863–6. Des Moines: Mills & Co., 1866.

  Stampp, Kenneth M., ed. Records of Antebellum Southern Plantations from the Revolution through the Civil War. Microfilm. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985–2000.

  Stillwell, Leander. The Story of a Common Soldier of Army Life in the Civil War, 1861–1865. Erie, Kan.: Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 1920.

  Storrs, Richard S. Terrors of the Pestilence: A Sermon, Preached in the Church of the Pilgrims, Brooklyn, N.Y., on Occasion of a Collection in Aid of the Sufferers at Norfolk, Va., September 30th, 1855. New York: John A. Gray, 1855.

  Taylor, Thomas E. Running the Blockade: A Personal Narrative of Adventures, Risks, and Escapes during the American Civil War. 1897. Reprint. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1995.

  Thompson, Edwin Porter. History of the First Kentucky Brigade. Cincinnati: Caxton Publishing House, 1868.

  Thompson, Samuel. “Malaria and Its Relation to the Existence and Character of Disease.” NorthWestern Medical and Surgical Journal 3 (May 1850): 19–43.

  Thorndike, Rachel Sherman, ed. The Sherman Letters: Correspondence between General Sherman and Senator Sherman from 1837 to 1891. New York: Da Capo Press, 1969.

  Thorpe, Sheldon B. The History of the Fifteenth Connecticut Volunteers in the War for the Defense of the Union, 1861–1865. New Haven, Conn.: Price, Lee & Adkins, Co., 1893.

  Todd, William. The Seventy-ninth Highlanders: New York Volunteers in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. Albany: Brandow, Barton, & Co., 1886.

  Towne, Laura. Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne. Written from the Sea Islands of South Carolina, 1862–1884. Edited by Rupert Sargent Holland. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969.

  Urquhart, Kenneth Trist, ed. Vicksburg, Southern City under Siege: William Lovelace Foster’s Letter Describing the Defense and Surrender of the Confederate Fortress on the Mississippi. New Orleans: Historic New Orleans Collection, 1980. Housed with United States Sanitary Commission Records, Library of Congress.

  Vaché, Alexander F. Letters on Yellow Fever, Cholera, and Quarantine; Addressed to the Legislature of the State of New York. New York: McSpedon & Baker, 1852.

  Vandiver, Frank E. Confederate Blockade Running through Bermuda, 1861–1865: Letters and Cargo Manifests. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1947.

  Walker, T. H. “Camp Diarrhœa.” Chicago Medical Journal 5 (August 1862): 478–80.

  Walkley, Stephen. History of the Seventh Connecticut Volunteer Infantry, Hawley’s Brigade, Terry’s Division, Tenth Army Corps, 1861–1865. Hartford, Conn., 1905.

  War Department Collection of Confederate Records. Record Group 109, National Archives. Washington, D.C.

  The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. 128 vols. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.

  War Papers Read before the Commandery of the State of Maine, Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Vol. 4. Portland, Maine: Lefavor-Tower Co., 1915.

  War Papers Read before the Commandery of the State of Wisconsin, Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Milwaukee: Burdick, Armitage & Allen, 1896.

  Warren, Edward. “Observations on Miasmatic Diseases.” American Medical Monthly 2 (October 1854): 241–53.

  Webb, William. “On the So-Called Malarious Diseases. A Paper Read before the St. Louis Medical Society.” St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal 12 (December 1854): 481–85.

  “The Week.” American Medical Times 7, August 8, 1863, 65–66.

  Weld, Stanley B. “A Connecticut Surgeon in the Civil War: The Reminiscences of Dr. Nathan Mayer.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 19 (July 1964): 272–86.

  Wheaton, James W., comp. Surgeon on Horseback: The Missouri and Arkansas Journal and Letters of Dr. Charles Brackett of Rochester, Indiana, 1861–1863. Carmel: Guild Press of Indiana, 1998.

  Whitcomb, Caroline E. History of the Second Massachusetts Battery (Nim’s Battery) of Light Artillery, 1861–1865. Concord, N.H.: Rumford Press, 1912.

  Williams, G. Mott. “Letters of General Thomas Williams, 1862.” American Historical Review 14 (January 1909): 304–28.

  Willson, Geo. B. “Army Ambulances—Cases in the Hospital of Richardson’s Brigade.” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 65 (January 1862): 542–44.

  Winschel, Terry J., ed. The Civil War Diary of a Common Soldier: William Wiley of the 77th Illinois Infantry. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001.

  Woodward, Joseph Janvier. Outlines of the Chief Camp Diseases of the United States Armies as Observed during the Present War. 1863. Reprint. San Francisco: Norman Publishing, 1992.

  Worsham, W. J. The Old Nineteenth Tennessee Regiment, C.S.A., June 1861. April, 1865. Knoxville: Press of Paragon Printing Co., 1902.

  Wragg, W. T. “Report on the Epidemic of Yellow Fever Which Prevailed at Wilmington, N.C., in the Fall of 1862.” New York Medical Journal 9 (August 1869): 478–96.

  Wright, Henry H. A History of the Sixth Iowa Infantry. Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1923.

  Younger, Edward. Inside the Confederate Government: The Diary of Robert Garlick Hill Kean, Head of the Bureau of War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1957.

  Periodicals

  Austin State Gazette

  Bellville Countryman

  Bermuda Royal Gazette

  Charleston Daily Courier

  Charleston Mercury

  Galveston Weekly News

  Harper’s Weekly

  Houston Telegraph

  Houston Tri-Weekly Telegraph

  Natchitoches Union

  New Orleans Daily Picayune

  New York Herald

  New York Times

  San Antonio Semi-Weekly News

  Savannah Daily Morning News

  Wilmington Journal

  SECONDARY SOURCES

  Ackerknecht, Erwin H. Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1760–1900. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945.

  Adams, George Worthington. “Confederate Medicine.” Journal of Southern History 6 (May 1940): 151–66.

  ———. Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War.Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University
Press, 1952.

  Anderson, Bern. “The Naval Strategy of the Civil War.” Military Affairs 26 (Spring 1962): 11–21.

  Axelrod, Alan. The War between the Spies: A History of Espionage during the American Civil War. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1992.

  Baird, Nancy Disher. Luke Pryor Blackburn: Physician, Governor, Reformer. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1979.

  Ballard, Michael B. Vicksburg: The Campaign That Opened the Mississippi. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

  Bastian, David F. Grant’s Canal: The Union Attempt to Bypass Vicksburg. Shippensburg, Pa.: Burd Street Press, 1995.

  Beringer, Richard E., Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still Jr. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986.

  Blessington, Joseph Palmer. The Campaigns of Walker’s Texas Division. Austin, Tex.: State House Press, 1994.

  Blanton, Wyndham B. Medicine in Virginia in the Nineteenth Century. Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1933.

  Block, W. T. “Yellow Fever Plagued Area during 1860s.” Beaumont Enterprise, August 7, 1999.

  Bollet, Alfred Jay. Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs. Tucson: Galen Press, 2002.

  ———. Plagues & Poxes: The Impact of Human History on Epidemic Disease. 2nd ed. New York: Demos, 2004.

  Boyd, Mark F. “An Historical Sketch of the Prevalence of Malaria in North America.” American Journal of Tropical Medicine 21 (March 1941): 223–44.

  Breeden, James O. “A Medical History of the Later Stages of the Atlanta Campaign.” Journal of Southern History 35 (February 1969): 31–59.

  Burgess, N.R.H., and G. O. Cowan. Atlas of Medical Entomology. London: Chapman & Hall Medical, 1993.

  Butcher, Carol A. “Malaria: A Parasitic Disease.” American Association of Occupational Health Nurses Journal 52 (July 2004): 302–9.

  Capers, Gerald M., Jr. “Confederates and Yankees in Occupied New Orleans, 1862–1865.” Journal of Southern History 30 (November 1964): 405–26.

  Caplan, Arthur L., H. Tristram Engelhardt Jr., and James L. McCartney, eds. Concepts of Health and Disease: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981.

  Carrier, John. “Medicine in Texas: The Struggle with Yellow Fever, 1839–1903.” Texas Medicine 82 (November 1986): 62–65.

  Carrigan, Jo Ann. The Saffron Scourge: A History of Yellow Fever in Louisiana, 1796–1905. Lafayette: University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1994.

  ———. “Yankees versus Yellow Jack in New Orleans, 1862–1866.” Civil War History 9 (September 1963): 248–61.

  Carter, H. R. Yellow Fever: Its Epidemiology, Prevention, and Control. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1914.

  Catton, Bruce. Grant Moves South. Boston: Little, Brown, 1960.

  Christophers, Rickard. Aedes Aegypti: The Yellow Fever Mosquito. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.

  Colbourne, Michael. Malaria in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.

  Cooke, Michael. “The Health of the Union Military in the District of Columbia, 1861–1865.” Military Affairs 48 (October 1984): 194–99.

  Cotham, Edward T., Jr. Sabine Pass: The Confederacy’s Thermopylae. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.

  Cumberland, Charles C. “The Confederate Loss and Recapture of Galveston, 1862–1863.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 51 (October 1947): 109–19.

  Cunningham, H. H. Doctors in Gray: The Confederate Medical Service. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1958.

  ———. “The Medical Services and Hospitals of the Southern Confederacy.” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1952.

  Darsie, Richard F., Jr., and Ronald A. Ward. Identification and Geographical Distribution of the Mosquitoes of North America, North of Mexico. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005.

  Davis, Stephen. Atlanta Will Fall: Sherman, Joe Johnston, and the Yankee Heavy Battalions. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2001.

  Denney, Robert E. Civil War Medicine: Care & Comfort of the Wounded. Foreword by Edwin C. Bearss. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1994.

  Diamond, William. “Imports of the Confederate Government from Europe and Mexico.” Journal of Southern History 6 (November 1940): 470–503.

  Dirckx, John H., ed. Stedman’s Concise Medical Dictionary for the Health Professions. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, 2001.

  Duffy, John. “Medical Practices in the Ante Bellum South.” Journal of Southern History 25 (February 1959): 53–72.

  ———. “Yellow Fever in the Continental United States during the Nineteenth Century.” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 44 (June 1968): 687–701.

  Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.

  Farnham, Thomas J., and Francis P. King. “‘The March of the Destroyer’: The New Bern Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1864.” North Carolina Historical Review 73 (October 1996): 435–83.

  Fenn, Elizabeth. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82. New York: Hill & Wang, 2001.

  Flannery, Michael A. Civil War Pharmacy: A History of the Drugs, Drug Supply and Provision, and Therapeutics for the Union and Confederacy. New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 2004.

  Foltz, Charles S. Surgeon of the Seas: The Adventurous Life of Surgeon General Jonathan M. Foltz in the Days of Wooden Ships. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1931.

  Foote, Shelby. The Civil War. 3 vols. New York: Vintage Books, 1986.

  Franke, Norman H. “Rx Prices in the Confederacy.” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 12 (December 1961): 773–74.

  Freemon, Frank R. Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care during the American Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.

  ———. “Medical Care at the Siege of Vicksburg, 1863.” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 67 (September–October 1991): 429–38.

  ———. “The Medical Challenge of Military Operations in the Mississippi Valley during the American Civil War.” Military Medicine 157 (September 1992): 494–97.

  Goldfield, David R. “The Business of Health Planning: Disease Prevention in the Old South.” Journal of Southern History 42 (November 1976): 557–70.

  Hallock, Judith Lee. “‘Lethal and Debilitating’: The Southern Disease Environment as a Factor in Confederate Defeat.” Journal of Confederate History 7 (1991): 51–61.

  Hasegawa, Guy R. “Pharmacy in the American Civil War.” American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 57 (March 2000): 475–89.

  Hayes, Charles W. History of the Island and the City of Galveston. 2 vols. Austin: Jenkins Garrett Press, 1974.

  Hoch, J. Hampton. “Through the Blockade.” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 12 (December 1961): 769–70.

  Holyman, Robert S. “Ben Butler in the Civil War.” New England Quarterly 30 (September 1957): 330–45.

  Horsfall, William R. Medical Entomology: Arthropods and Human Disease. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1962.

  Humphreys, Margaret. Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.

  ———. Yellow Fever and the South. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.

  Jarecka, Louise Llewellyn. “Virginia Moon, Unreconstructed Rebel.” Delphian Quarterly 30 (January 1947): 17–21.

  Joiner, Gary Dillard. One Damn Blunder from Beginning to End: The Red River Campaign of 1864. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2003.

  King, Joseph Edward. “Shoulder Straps for Aesculapius: The Vicksburg Campaign, 1863.” Military Surgeon 114 (March 1954): 216–26.

  Kiple, Kenneth F. “Black Yellow Fever Immunities, Innate and Acquired, as Revealed in the American South.” Social Science History 1 (Summer 1977): 419–36.

  ———. “A Survey of Recent Literature on the Biological Past of the Black.” Social Science History 10 (Winter 1986): 343–67.

  Koeniger, A
. Cash. “Climate and Southern Distinctiveness.” Journal of Southern History 54 (February 1988): 21–44.

  Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. “Fear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experience.” William and Mary Quarterly 41 (April 1984): 213–40.

  Leonard, Elizabeth D. All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies. New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.

  Mandell, Gerald L., John E. Bennett, and Raphael Dolin, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2000.

  Massey, Mary Elizabeth. Bonnet Brigades. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966.

  ———. Ersatz in the Confederacy: Shortages and Substitutes on the Southern Homefront. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993.

  McComb, David G. Galveston: A History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986.

  McCormmach, Russell. “Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel’s ‘Sidereal Messenger,’ 1846–1848.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 110, February 18, 1966, 35–47.

  McMurry, Richard M. “Marse Robert and the Fevers: A Note on the General as Strategist and on Medical Ideas as a Factor in Civil War Decision Making.” Civil War History 35 (September 1989): 197–207.

  McNeill, William H. Plagues and Peoples. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1976.

  McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Ballantine Books, 1988.

  ———. Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

  Miller, Edward S. “A Long War and a Sickly Season.” Blue & Gray Magazine 9 (June 1992): 40–44.

  Mitchel, F. A. Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel, Astronomer and General: A Biographical Narrative. Boston: Riverside Press, 1887.

  Mitchell, Reid. Civil War Soldiers. New York: Penguin Books, 1988.

  Moulton, Forest Ray, ed. A Symposium on Human Malaria with Special Reference to North America and the Caribbean Region. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1941.

  Ockenhouse, Christian F., Alan Magill, Dale Smith, and Wil Milhous. “History of U.S. Military Contributions to the Study of Malaria.” Military Medicine 170 (April 2005): 12–16.

  Parks, Joseph H. “A Confederate Trade Center under Federal Occupation: Memphis, 1862 to 1865.” Journal of Southern History 7 (August 1941): 289–314.