Manifest Destiny: HEGEMONY

by Brian Boyington

  USS Winslow also fired four salvos during the same time that Huascar fired two. The damage to Huascar was enormous with the forward turret knocked out of action with a direct hit at the base of the turret, jamming the mechanism. Huascar scored one hit which exploded on the side armor but did not penetrate. USS Winslow fired another salvo, scoring three hits near the waterline causing Huascar to list to starboard. With her main deck now exposed Huascar tried to turn away. USS Winslow fired another salvo, three shells penetrated the main deck, exploding inside Huascar. Smoke, then flames billowed out, then Huascar exploded.

  USS Winslow then rotated the twelve-inch gun turrets to target Almiralte Cochrane. Both United States battleships fired salvos scoring a combined six hits, and knocking out two of the nine-inch Armstrong guns. Witnessing the destruction of Huascar, and the defeat of his corvettes, Captain Charles Condell de LaHaza hauled down his flag in surrender.

  With the battle in Chimbote Bay won, Admiral Kincaid focused his binoculars on the troop ship convoy. He saw smoke and heard the distant rumble of gunfire. He signaled USS Winslow to accept the surrender of Almiralte Cochrane, and Captain Mahon to escort USS Atlas towards the harbor dock. The two corvettes were dismasted hulks, slowly sinking, with their crews abandoning ship. Captain Dewey steamed towards the sinking warships and lowered lifeboats to assist in the rescue of the Chilean sailors. Admiral Kincaid then ordered Captain Powell to make full steam towards the troop convoy.

  Chapter 8.

  Commodore Oscar Viel-Toro on the quarterdeck of the battleship Blanco Encalada positioned his three corvettes in a crescent-shaped screen two miles ahead. The main-top lookout shouted: “Signal from El Conde enemy in sight, sloop of war bearing five degrees north-northeast, distance five-miles.” Viel-Toro ordered his flag captain to battle-stations, and full speed ahead.” Blanco Encalada surged forward to catch up with her consorts.

  Minutes later the main-top lookout shouted: “Signal from El Conde, the second sloop of war is sighted. Permission to engage.” Viel-Toro glanced at his flag captain and nodded. The flag captain then said: “Signal to El Conde – engage as you are able.” The three Chilean corvettes beat to quarters and powered up the steam engines to close the distance.

  The main-top look out on USS Atlas shouted “Enemy in sight, three corvettes distance four miles 350 degrees west-southwest. Minutes later the lookout shouted: “Battleship sighted, the same bearing distance of five miles.” USS Atlas relayed the signals to USS Pegasus. With signal flags flying, both warships came about to comply with Commodore Dalton’s orders.

  USS Satyr’s masthead lookout reported the signals to Commodore Dalton. He signaled USS Mercury to engage the corvettes, USS Pegasus and USS Atlas to fall back to protect the troop ships, and that USS Satyr would engage Blanco Encalada. All the ships captains acknowledged the orders. Commodore Dalton ordered full speed ahead.

  Commodore Oscar Viel-Toro observed the pending order of battle. He was confident that Blanco Encalada could defeat the United States Navy battleship and that his three corvettes could seriously damage the other battleship. After defeating his opposing battleship, he could finish off the other. Then the troopship convoy would be his. He did not know the progress of the battle in Chimbote Bay but could hear heavy cannon fire. He was confident in the abilities of Captain Charles Condell de LaHaza and the defenses he had established along the shore.

  When the rangefinder on USS Satyr indicated seven miles, Commodore Dalton ordered the forward turret to fire a ranging shot. Several seconds later a waterspout erupted one-quarter mile short of the approaching Blanco Encalada. Dalton ordered a quarter turn to starboard and for the second gun to fire. That shell impacted 100 yards short. Dalton then ordered both turrets to fire a salvo. The four shells straddled Blanco Encalada.

  Viel-Toro, realizing he had to close the distance to bring his guns to bear ordered more steam, The captain protested that the boiler was already at 100 percent. Viel-Toro glared at him then said: “Our destruction will be assured before we can fire if we don’t close the range. More steam, now!” The captain told the chief engineer to release the safeties on the boiler. Within a minute Blanco Encalada surged forward.

  Commodore Dalton ordered continuous fire, with the elevation of the guns decreasing with each salvo. The first hit struck Blanco Encalada on the deck behind the bow, penetrated then exploded, showering wood and metal splinters, with eight crew members killed. The second hit struck the armor on the forward side of the starboard battery then exploded. The armor held, with minimal damage. Two more shells hit seconds later on the main deck. One exploded on impact, the other penetrated before exploding. A dozen more crew were down, and Blanco Encalada still was out of range of her guns. Viel-Toro stomped his feet in frustration as he paced around the quarter-deck. Another shell exploded above the quarter-deck, killing the captain. Viel-Toro screamed his frustration at the Chief Engineer who approached indicating the boilers could not hold much more pressure. “More speed” was all he could shout. Finally, at four miles from his adversary, Viel-Toro ordered the helmsman to turn hard to port. The battery of Armstrong rifled muzzle loaders fired. Waterspouts erupted alongside USS Satyr.

  Commodore Dalton ordered a full broadside fired, including the three, six-inch casement mounted rifled breech loaders. Waterspouts straddled Blanco Encalada, with three hits on her armor plate. The explosions peeled away armor but did not penetrate. It was now a slugging match between two battleships. Dalton ordered a course change to cut across the bow of Blanco Encalada. Viel-Toro countered to maintain the broadside battle. Both warships pounded each other, with the armor repelling most hits. Slowly, USS Satyr, with its more rapid rate of fire and sloped armor gained the advantage as damage began to mount on Blanco Encalada.

  USS Mercury steered a course to bring it between the corvettes. The forward twelve-inch battery focused on a corvette on the left, the rear turret on the warship on the right. The three six-inch casement guns fired broadsides from both sides. The corvettes returned fire with their seven and nine-inch Armstrong guns. However, the shells ricocheted off the sloped armor plate. One by one, USS Mercury’s gunfire sank the corvettes.

  The third corvette made a run at the troop ships, but USS Atlas and USS Pegasus intercepted her before she could get into range. Both Atlas and Pegasus fired their three fifteen-inch Parrot rifles at the corvette, scoring several hits. The Chilean warship fought back bravely, scoring several hits. However, she sank within thirty minutes of the start of the battle.

  USS Mercury steamed to aid USS Satyr in the fight against Blanco Encalada. The broadsides from both Satyr and Mercury stripped away the armor protecting Blanco Encalada. Two shells struck the quarter-deck killing Viel-Toro and the helmsman. With large gaps in the armor protection, shells penetrated the gun batteries, exploding and killing most of the gun crews. The end came when the steam pressure exceeded the boiler’s capacity, which ruptured then exploded with flames erupting through the main deck. Surviving crew members began jumping overboard. Within minutes Blanco Encalada rolled over and sank.

  USS Satyr and USS Mercury lowered boats to rescue surviving Chilean sailors. During this rescue mission, USS Kearsarge arrived on the scene. Gratified to observe that all his warships were intact, Admiral Kincaid signaled the fleet to follow him into Chimbote Bay. Observing that the United States Navy had defeated the Chilean naval forces, the Chilean ground commander Colonel Aquino asked for terms. Kincaid informed him that his soldiers would have to stack their weapons and board a troop ship for repatriation to Chile. The officers could keep their swords and sidearms. Aquino agreed and together with the surviving Chilean sailors boarded two troop ships for the return to Chile.

  United States Marines debarked from the troop ships and occupied the former Chilean barracks. Salvage operations began on the sunken Chilean warships. Kincaid assigned Captain Dewey as commander of USS Atlas. With her damage repaired and escorted by USS Sword, USS Atlas sailed to San Francisco for permanent repairs with Admiral Kinc
aid’s full report of the battle and its aftermath.

  The Almiralte Cochrane was repaired and presented to the Peruvian Navy. Two weeks later, Peruvian sailors boarded the warship and took custody of the vessel. Steamships brought Peruvian workers to assist in the construction of the United States Naval Base.

  In the months following the battle, Peruvian troops regained the initiative over the Chilean occupying forces. The Chilean army, which briefly occupied Lima, suffered from the lack of naval logistical supplies and support. The Peruvians, on the other hand, were provided modern weapons and logistical support from the United States.

  The Peruvian Navy used the Almiralte Cochrane to bombard Chilean seaports and intercept supply convoys. During a raid on Valparaiso, the Almiralte Cochrane sank following an attack by Chilean torpedo boats.

  Suffering from shortages of arms and ammunition, the Chilean Army retreated, surrendering up most of their Peruvian conquered territory. The war dragged on for two more years. Great Britain, alarmed by the growing United States hegemony in South America, and the German Empire’s provision to the Chileans of armaments and logistical support; offered to act as a mediator to end the war.

  Peru, Bolivia, and Chile were exhausted, and an armistice was declared. The peace treaty signed on October 20, 1883, shifted the previously undefined and disputed boundaries. Peru regained its lost territories except for its southernmost province of Tarapeca which went to Chile. Bolivia became landlocked as Chile conquered the coastal province of Antofagasta and its only seaport.

  Peru considered the outcome to be a victory due to its alliance with the United States. That alliance brought a thriving seaport to Chimbote Bay, with railroad and telegraph connections to Lima. Peru also made arrangements for the purchase of the ironclads USS Monadnock and the converted USS Deli from the United States.

  The United States Navy constructed a major naval base at Chimbote Bay, adjacent to the seaport. A second city was under construction to house naval support personnel and the families of the sailors. The United States Department of the Navy administered the naval base. Within months schools were established, and the local economy began to thrive. The hidden inlet used by the Chilean Navy became a tourist destination. The Peruvians cleared the land and constructed hotels and restaurants to serve the growing tourist trade.

  Chile gained two provinces including the large discoveries of nitrate and guano located in Antofagasta. Chilean civilian migration into its new provinces increased to take advantage of these new resources. The war also pushed Chile into the orbit of the United Kingdom, which agreed to construct two fast cruisers for the Chilean Navy. Chile ordered a new modern battleship.

  Upon their arrival at the Mare Island Naval Base, Captain’s Dewey and Alfred Thayer Mahn received hero welcomes. Naval Command confirmed Dewey as Captain of USS Atlas, and Captain Mahn received a prestigious appointment as a professor at the Naval War College. There, he earned acclaim for his advanced theories on naval tactics. The Navy also sent a dispatch ship to Chimbote Bay confirming Captain Dalton’s appointment to Commodore and awarded Admiral Kincaid with a second star. Commodore Dalton was ordered home for re-assignment as Commodore of a new fast cruiser squadron.

  The successful campaigns in Columbia and Chimbote; and the successful diplomatic missions to Brazil and Argentina reinforced the prestige and hegemony of the United States in South America. Internationally, with the affirmation of The Monroe Doctrine, South America became recognized to be within the United States sphere of influence.

  Chapter 9.

  October 15, 1881.

  Berlin, German Empire.

  At the suggestion of the United States, the European powers scheduled an international conference involving the colonialization of Africa. Up to that time, The German Empire did not have any African Colonies. Therefore, Berlin was considered to be a neutral Capitol. Attending countries included: Austria Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, The German Empire, Italy, Netherlands, The Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway, The United Kingdom and the United States. With the conference situated in Berlin, the delegates elected Chancellor Otto Von Bismark as the chairman.

  Each nation sent a Plenipotentiary to the conference. Secretary of State Garfield represented the United States. Garfield was the guest of Admiral Lee and arrived in Hamburg in an impressive convoy, escorted by the Battleships USS Indiana and USS Massachusetts. Admiral Lee made an initial stop in Monrovia, Liberia. There the Liberian delegation joined the entourage.

  Liberia, while not being specifically invited to the conference, assigned General Obadiah Driver as a Liberian delegate to the United States delegation. He had full Plenipotentiary authority. Accompanying him was his young wife Amelia, who was the niece of President Taylor. In Hamburg, General Driver arrived in his dress uniform with enough medals to rival any of the European minor prince's uniforms.

  Up to this point, the European powers had colonized areas bordering the oceans. With the discovery of substantial natural resources, expansion into the interior became a paramount concern. Boundary disputes were inevitable, and conflicts could lead to war. The powers, following much debate, developed the doctrine of effective occupation.

  The principle of effective occupation stated that powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only if they possessed them or had "effective occupation." In other words, if they had treaties with local leaders, if they flew their flag there, and if they established an administration in the territory to govern it, with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. This principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial sovereignty in Africa but also could be used to settle boundary disputes.

  Liberia satisfied the principle of effective occupation along the border of Ivory Coast up the Milo River to the Niger River. They had colonized the area, established military outposts, and had an effective police force. The territory between there and the Sierra Leone boundary was ill-defined. All concerned parties agreed to an arbitrary line drawn from the Niger River to the Sierre Leone town of Koidu. The south side of the line was confirmed to be part of Liberia. Under a separate agreement between the United Kingdom and France, the northern border was determined to be under the French sphere of influence. General Driver was satisfied as for the first time, all the European Powers recognized Liberia’s existence, and defined its borders.

  With the Liberian issue settled, the United States delegation withdrew from the conference. Secretary Garfield reassured the European powers that with the new Liberian boundaries recognized, the United States had no further interest in Africa. Furthermore, he stated that the United States would not bind itself to any other agreements decided by the conference.

  Following a weeks journey, the United States Navy convoy reached Monrovia. General Driver and Amelia were guests on the bridge of USS Indiana when they steamed into Monrovia. Obadiah was delighted to observe another convoy of cargo ships unloading building materials and long guns to reinforce Monrovia’s protection from Forts Monroe and Clay.

  The next day, President Taylor hosted a celebratory reception at the presidential mansion. Disclosure of the full details of the border settlement delighted the guests. An international crisis was averted, and for the first time, Liberia’s boundaries were internationally recognized.

  With diamond wealth flooding the treasury, President Taylor was eager to upgrade his military. An order was presented to purchase a new Massachusetts Class battleship, and two of the new class of fast cruisers. The cruisers were capable of speeds more than twenty knots. Liberia’s mercantile fleet was growing, and so was the threat of piracy. The fast cruisers were required to interdict the pirates or hunt them down once they struck. As the Canonicus Class monitors were aging, Taylor also ordered two Puritan Class Monitors for coastal defense. With the delivery the Puritan Class Monitors, the Canonicus Monitors would serve as river patrol.

  General Driver was eager to learn abou
t the new upgrades to the Gatling guns. He also placed a large order for Spencer repeating rifles and ammunition. These weapons would enhance the protection provided by the garrisons in the new territory.

  Chapter 10

  September 5, 1883.

  Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Fredericton, New Brunswick

  General elections occurred across these territories. The issues were to apply for statehood or to remain as territories. For the previous ten years, municipal elections selected mayors, city councils, and representatives to each of the territory assemblies. The President appointed the territorial governors. The territories elected non-voting representatives to Congress. The sentiment was strong for full statehood.

  The population in both territories almost doubled, since their acquisition by the United States. Some of the increase came from foreign immigration, but mostly the migration came from New Englanders looking for greener pastures. These new residents pressured the territorial legislatures to press for statehood. One week later, the final vote count indicated that over 75% of the ballots cast were for statehood. New elections were scheduled for November to elect governors, state representatives and senators, and federal representatives.