A Peace to End all Peace
Page 78
Red Line Agreement (1928)
Reshadieh (battleship)
Reuters
Reza Khan Pahlavi, later Reza Shah Pahlavi, Shah of Iran
Rhodes, Cecil
Ribot, Alexandre
Richmond, Captain Herbert William
Richmond, Ernest T.
Riddellst Baron (George Allardice Riddell)
Robeck, Admiral John de
Robert College
Robertson, Field Marshal Sir William
Robinson, Geoffrey
Rome and Jerusalem (Hess)
Rothschild, Baron Edward
Rothschild, James de
Round Table
Rumania
Russell, Bertrand
Russia/Russian Empire (later Soviet Union): see specific headings
Russian Civil War
Russian Orthodox Church
Russian Revolutions (1917)
Rutenberg, Pinhas
St Jean de Maurienne, Agreement of (1917)
St John Philby, H.
Salisburyrd Marquis of (Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil)
Salonika
Samuel, Sir Herbert
San Remo Conference/Agreement (1920)
Sarajevo
Saud, House of
Saudi Arabia
Sazanov, Sergei
Scapa Flow (HQ of Grand Fleet)
Scott, C. P.
Seeckt, General Hans von
Senussi
Serbia
Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Lawrence)
Seven Theses on the War (Lenin)
Sèvres, Treaty of (1920)
Sforza, Count Carlo
Shaftesbury, Anthony Cooper, Earl of
Shah of Persia see Ahmed Shah and Reza Khan Pahlavi
Shakespear, Captain William Henry
Shaumian, Stephan
Sherif of Mecca see Hussein Ibn Ali
Shuckburgh, Evelyn
Siberia
Sidebotham, Herbert
Sikhs
Sinai
Smith, F. E., later 1st Earl of Birkenhead
Smuts, General Jan Christian
Smyrna
Socialist Second International
Sociéte Ottomane du Chemin de Fer Damas-Hama et Prolongements
Sokolow, Nahum
Somerset, F. R.
Somme, Battle of the
Sonnino, Baron Sidney
Souchon, Rear-Admiral
South Africa
South Persia Rifles
Stalin, Joseph (Joseph Vissarionovich Djugashvili)
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey
Standard Oil Company of New York (“Socony”)
Starosselski, Colonel
Steevens, George
Stevenson, Frances
Stirling, W. E.
Storrs, Ronald
Straus, Oscar
Sublime Porte: as the name given to the Ottoman government; see also specific headings
Sudan
Suez Canal
Sultan of Turkey see Abdul Hamid II, Sultan; Mehmed V, Sultan; Mehmed VI, Sultan
Sultan Osman I (battleship)
Sunday Times, The
Sykes, Brigadier General Sir Percy
Sykes, Sir Mark: writes that there is no Turkey and there are no Turks; warns House of Commons that disappearance of Ottoman Empire will lead to disappearance of British Empire (1914); complains there is no authentic history of the Ottoman Empire in the English language; and French claims to Syria; his background, education, political career, and characteristics; asks Churchill for a chance to serve “on the spot” against Turkey; appointed to serve as Kitchener’s representative on the de Bunsen committee; comments on Kitchener; warns Churchill that Turks at Gallipoli may be “formidable” foes; embarks on fact-finding tour of Middle East and India; sees incoherence resulting from each government department running its own Middle East policies; proposes creating Arab Bureau; and the al-Faruqi episode; and Armenians; and Arabs; negotiates (with Picot) Allied partition of Middle East; misunderstands what Clayton and the Arab Bureau asked him to accomplish in the negotiations; attacks Asquith, and meets Lloyd George, Milner, and the editor of The Times; learns of Zionism; joins Picot in Petrograd to negotiate with Russia; joins War Cabinet secretariat (1916); publishes Arabian Report; urges support for Hussein’s revolt; urges that McMahon be replaced by Wingate; popularizes the phrase “Middle East” and Amery; pro-Arab and pro-Zionist, negotiates with Zionists and seeks support from France, Italy, and the Vatican for an Allied pro-Zionist declaration and hopes for an Arab-Jewish-Armenian pro-Allied partnership; believes imperialism “contrary to the spirit of the times” sent out to Egyptian Expeditionary Force (1917); and the administration of Mesopotamia; drafts Baghdad declaration; designs Arab flag for Hussein’s followers; appointed to Foreign Office; officers on the spot disagree with him about who should rule the newly-occupied Middle East territories and about the need to honor pledges to France and to Zionism and the alliance with King Hussein; obtains agreement of Syrian Arab leaders in Cairo to terms already negotiated with France and Hussein (1917); writes Declaration to the Seven to Syrian Arab leaders in Cairo (1918); perhaps recants his views; dies; his wartime design for the postwar Middle East in large part is carried into effect; see also Sykes-Picot-Sazanov Agreement
Sykes-Picot-Sazanov Agreement (1916)
Symes, Captain G. S.
Syria
Syria, French League of Nations Mandate for
Syrian Congress, General
Syrian Istiqlal Party
Syrian National Party
Syrian Protestant College
Taft, William Howard
Talaat Bey, Mehmed
Talib, Sayyid
Tancred (Disraeli)
Tannenberg, Battle of
Tartars
Tatler
Temps, Le
Thirty-Nine Steps (Buchan)
Thomas, Lowell
Tibet
Tigris campaign (1915—16)
Times, The
Togan, Zeki Velidi
Townshend, Major-General Charles Vere Ferrers
Toynbee, Arnold
Transcaucasia
Transjordan see under Palestine
Trenchard, Sir Hugh
Trotsky, Leon (Lev Davidovich Bronstein)
Trumpeldor, Captain Joseph
Tumulty, Joseph Patrick
Turaba
Turkestan
Tutankhamun, tomb of
Uganda: and Zionism
Ukraine
United States
Venizelos, Eleutherios
Verdun, Battle of
Verité sur la question syrienne, La (Djemal Pasha)
Versailles, Treaty of
Vickers
Victoria, Queen
Viviani, René
Wafd Party (Egypt)
Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn Abdul
Wahhabis
Walrund, Osmond
Wangenheim, Hans von
Wassmuss, Wilhelm
Weizmann, Chaim
Wellingtonst Duke of (Arthur Wellesley)
Wellman, Guy
Wells, H. G.
Wemyss, Vice-Admiral Sir Rosslyn
Wilhelm II, Kaiser
Wilson, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Arthur
Wilson, Colonel Sir Arnold T.
Wilson, Colonel C. E.
Wilson, Sir Henry
Wilson, (Thomas) Woodrow: his background, character, and political career; interferes with a J.P. Morgan financing for Britain (1916); opposes Allied imperial ambitions; attempts to negotiate a compromise peace; and the Zimmerman telegram; his domestic political problems; pushed into the war by German U-boat campaign, he plans to fight the war on political grounds of his own choosing; is worried that the public will learn of secret Allied treaties such as the Sykes-Picot Agreement; outlines Fourteen Points, Four Principles, Four Ends, and Five Particulars; refuses to declare war on the Ottoman Empire; seeks guidance in framing America’s
plans for the postwar world; foresees “cataclysm” if the peace “is not made on the highest principles of justice” compared and contrasted with Lloyd George; and the conception of League of Nations Mandates; and Brandeis, Zionism and the Balfour Declaration; and the principle of national self-determination; Lloyd George’s contempt for; meets Lloyd George in London (December 1918); at the Peace Conference; falls ill; defeated in his fight for Senate ratification of the agreements reached in Paris; succeeded as President by Harding
Wingate, Lieutenant-General Sir Francis Reginald
With Lawrence in Arabia (Thomas)
World Zionist Congress
Yale University
Yemen, the
Young, Captain Sir Hubert Winthrop
Young Turkey Party (Young Turks) (C.U.P.)
Yugoslavia
Zaghlul, Saad
Zaharoff, Basil
Zavriev, Dr
Zimmerman, Arthur
Zimmerman telegram
Zinoviev, Grigori
Zionists/Zionism
Zionist Commission (Palestine)
Zionist Federation, British
Zionist-Revisionist Organization
Holt Paperbacks
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fromkin, David.
A peace to end all peace.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN: 978-1-4299-8852-0
1. Great Britain—Foreign relations—Middle East. 2. Middle East—Foreign relations—Great Britain. 3. Middle East—Politics and government—1914–1945.
I. Title.
DS63.2.G7F76 1989 327.41056 88-34727
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Originally published in hardcover in 1989 by Henry Holt and Company
* The Baghdad Railway project remains the best-known example of German economic penetration of the region. The story is a tangled one and often misunderstood, but the British originally encouraged and supported the project, little aware at the outset of the dangers it might pose. Eventually the project became a source of discord between Britain and Germany which, however, was resolved by an agreement reached between the two countries in 1914.
* These activities of the rival intelligence services are what some writers mean by the Great Game; others use the phrase in the broader sense in which it is used in this book.
* Karasu, however, did attempt at various times to reconcile the aims of Zionism with those of C.U.P. nationalism.
* “It is a measure of the low degree of development of the Ottoman Empire that in 1914, its 1,900,000 square kilometers had only 5,991 kilometers of railways,” all of it single-track.5
* This opinion was rendered a week before the outbreak of war between Britain and Germany.
* The treaty was signed the day after Germany had declared war on Russia. Germany had not been required to declare war by the terms of her treaty with Austria; as it happened, Germany declared war several days before Austria-Hungary did. The oddly drawn treaty with the Ottoman Empire therefore did not—if read literally—obligate the Turks to enter the war.
* In March 1915 he moved into York House, St James’s Palace, a residence provided for him by King George.
* The Circassians were a people from the Caucasus, once ruled by Turkey and later by Russia.
* “Simla” is often used to mean the Government of India, whose summer capital it was.
* Troubles caused by groups such as the nomadic Senussi on Egypt’s Libyan frontier were minor, and might well have occurred in any event.
* Hussein referred to himself and his family as “Hashemites.”
* The historical evidence now shows that this was not true.5 But the left wing of the Liberal Party continued to believe that it was.
* He told the Cabinet so; he told the Prime Minister so; and he recorded his opinion in letters and memoranda. In a diary entry for 19 March he recorded that “On the first day proposal was made I warned P. M., Lord K, Chief of Staff, L. George and Balfour that Fleet could not effect passage and that all naval officers thought so.”3 Hankey indeed had issued such warnings, but a month later than he claimed. It was not on 13 January (when the Cabinet committee decided on the Dardanelles expedition) but on 10 February that he wrote to Balfour along those lines.4 Later still he spoke to Asquith. On 13 February, the Prime Minister noted that “I have just been having a talk with Hankey, whose views are always worth hearing. He thinks very strongly that the naval operations…should be supported by landing a fairly strong military force. I have been for some time coming to the same opinion…”5
* Now called Iskenderun, and located in the extreme south of what is now Turkey, near the frontier of what is now Syria.
* The image is one used by Lord Beaverbrook.
* Both belonged to the Other Club, founded by Winston Churchill and F. E. Smith.
* Historians still debate the question of whether victory in the Ottoman war in 1915 would have led to a rapid Allied victory in the German war. The “Easterners,” led by Lloyd George, never doubted that it would have done so.
* Lawrence worked closely with the Arab Bureau, but was not officially posted to it until the end of 1916.
* Reginald Wingate, who governed the Sudan, was alone among Kitchener’s followers in believing from the very outset of the Ottoman war that Hussein could be of military assistance to Britain.
* Hussein ibn Ali, the Sherif of Mecca and its Emir, is referred to variously as Hussein, the Sherif, the Sherif Hussein, the Emir Hussein and, later, King Hussein. He is also referred to as the ruler of the Hejaz and, later, as King of the Hejaz.
* A curious assertion, since the Arabs were already in the enemy camp.
* Professor Elie Kedourie among them.
* As noted earlier, advocates of an Arab Palestine have argued for decades that the geographical terms employed by McMahon, if properly interpreted, indicate that McMahon was pledging that Palestine would be Arab; and advocates of a Jewish Palestine have argued the reverse.
* Jews whose ancestors in the Middle Ages lived in Spain and Portugal.
* After Gallipoli, Enver resumed his earlier campaign to curb German influence. In early 1916 he indicated that even the 5,500 German troops then in the Ottoman Empire were too many, and should be withdrawn. To demonstrate that Turkey had no need of them, he insisted on sending seven Ottoman divisions to southern Europe to fight alongside the armies of other of the Central Powers. His efforts were not entirely successful; indeed, by the end of the war, there were 25,000 German officers and men serving in the Ottoman Empire.
* It was not easy. As the archives of Austria-Hungary show, Habsburg officials expressed deep distrust of the ambitions for expansion that they ascribed to the German and Turkish empires.1 For centuries, Austria-Hungary had been encroaching on Ottoman territories in Europe. Her annexation of Ottoman Bosnia had brought on the Balkan Wars and set the stage for Sarajevo. She continued to dispute the Ottoman title to Albania, which she occupied in the earlier part of the world war. Harboring territorial designs of their own, Habsburg officials suspected that Hohenzollern officials were thinking along similar lines, so that Djemal’s Suez campaign brought expressions of concern from them that Germany might attempt to annex Egypt; while Ottoman officials, as always, distrusted their European partners.
* The Liberal statesman, historian, and jurist, James Bryce, a pro-Armenian who headed a commission to investigate the 1915–16 rmenian Massacres during the war, issued a report that was damning
to the C.U.P. government. Turkish spokesmen still claim that the Bryce report was a one-sided and distorted work of wartime propaganda, and cite the admission of Arnold Toynbee, one of Bryce’s assistants, that the report was intended to further Britain’s propaganda and policy objectives.14 In this it succeeded.
* In the end, they succeeded. Wingate was appointed High Commissioner, but not until January 1917.
* Milner’s ideal was a union of the white peoples of the British Empire. Other members of the Milner circle, however, advocated a multiracial imperial union.
** Lionel George Curtis, his former secretary, in 1910 helped to found the quarterly review the Round Table which advocated British imperial federalism. Another former secretary, John Buchan, was a fervent imperialist who won over a vast public by his popular adventure novels. Another graduate of the Kindergarten, Geoffrey Robinson, edited The Times.
* Hankey wrote to Lloyd George that Sykes was “mainly an expert on Arab affairs” but that he was “by no means a one-sided man” and that his breadth of vision could be “invaluable in fixing up the terms of peace.”12
* There is some dispute about the exact figure.
* The German Foreign Secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, sent a secret cable instructing his Minister in Mexico to seek an alliance with Mexico against the United States. Mexico was to be given Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The British government turned over an intercepted copy of Zimmerman’s cable to President Wilson, who published it.