by Mark Pagel
chromosomes, 126–27, 252, 283–84
sex, 318
Churchill, Winston, 58, 164
Cicero, 90–91
cichlid fish, 106–7
cities, 265, 343, 345–48, 359–63, 369
collapse of, 361
defensive walls of, 360
disease transmission in, 360–61
efficiency of, 359–60
planned, 357
strangers trusted in, 346–48
technological innovations needed by, 361
see also nation-states
city-states, 346
Clark, William, 52–53, 185–86
clones, 71, 211, 330
clothing, 4, 30, 44, 47, 61, 130
dating of, 259
differentiated, 52
lice and, 259, 260
code switching, 292
collective ignorance, 335, 363
commensals, 136–37
common goods, 213, 226–31
Company of Strangers, The (Seabright), 346–47
competition, ix–x, 7, 11, 85, 98, 180, 184, 186, 240, 311
to cooperate, 226–31
among cultural forms, 137, 139
among cultural survival vehicles, 67–68, 72, 90, 92–93, 96, 97, 146
killing off of, 85, 152, 188
in meritocracies, 125
with neighboring groups, 159–60
among RNA strands, 74, 75, 181–84
social, 246–51
specialization and, 108, 125
for survival, 64, 158
of words, 300–302, 306
complex systems, 350–57
computer games, 23
computers, 241–42, 252, 265, 293, 334, 336–37
chess played by, 332
computer simulations, 192–93, 352, 353
Confessions (Augustine), 333
conflicts of interest, 70–72, 179–202, 233, 323, 338
Congo (chimpanzee), 109–10
conscience, 88, 123–24, 195, 313
consciousness, 8, 13–14, 249–50, 269–73, 321–22, 324–34
of apes, 333
language and, 333–34
memes in, 331
as virtual sixth sense, 332–34
conspicuous consumption, 155–56, 214, 215–16
conspicuous waste, 153–56, 163, 166, 213–16, 217, 230, 362
conspiracy theories, 338, 339
Constant Battles (LeBlanc and Register), 92
contagion, 338, 339
contrade, Sienese, 103, 121–22
cooking, 235
cooperation, ix, x, 3, 8, 13, 14, 15, 53, 69–98, 165, 173–266, 311, 333, 338, 367–68
alliances in, 184–87
as common good, 213
conflicts of interest in, 179–202, 224, 228
death avoided by, 76
demonstrating commitment to, 226–31
diffusion of, 201–2, 205–6, 212–13, 221–22
economic interdependence in, 186, 350–51
evolution of, 174, 177, 204–13
language and, 220–21, 279–83
large societies enabled by, 345–49, 362–63, 364, 365–66
linked fates in, 75, 183–87, 191, 230–31
of multicellular bodies, 75–76, 79–80
natural selection of, 10–11, 73, 78, 88, 176, 177, 182–84
origins of, 73–76
prisoner’s dilemma and, 188–89
psychological dispositions and emotions related to, 180, 190, 199–200, 204–13, 280
reciprocal, 220
self-interest vs., 71–73
selfish cheaters and, 71–72, 173–74, 176–77, 180, 187–88, 190, 191, 192–93, 194, 199, 200, 208–18, 226–27, 229, 347
as social norm, 212
as survival strategy, 72
win-stay, lose-shift strategy in, 194–95
as “win-win” strategy, 313
worldwide, 186
cooperative exchange, 100, 103–5, 108, 124, 311–12, 313
coordinated action, 150–53, 159
Cordyceps fungus, 20
Corps of Discovery, see Lewis and Clark expedition
Cosmides, Leah, 208–9
Creation, The (Atkins), 240
creationism, 140
creativity, 43, 236–44, 328, 359
Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, 310
crime rate, 265–66
Cubism, 111
cultural diversity, vii–x
geography in, ix
Native American, 52–53
within Soviet Union, 59
cultural enhancers, 132–69, 220
memes vs., 135–38, 145–46, 158–64
as not directly productive, 132–34, 163
survivors of competition among, 137
see also art; music; religions
Cultural Origins of Human Cognition (Tomasello), 41
cultural survival vehicles, 12–15, 29, 45–68, 69–98, 134–35, 153, 191, 281, 355–56
allegiance to, 11, 12, 13, 14, 19, 27, 73
alliances formed by, 75–76, 88
competition among, 67–68, 72, 90, 92–93, 96, 97, 146
complex subdivisions of, 11
cooperation and, 70–98
cues for shared cultural history in, 82–83, 222–23
cumulative adaptation and, 45–49
favoring members of, 8, 80–82
identifying outsiders of, 222–23, 231–32, 304
missing years and, 59–62
origin of, 76–87
rule of two broken by, 66–68
sense of belonging to, 11, 12, 13, 72–73
shared purposed of, 73, 369
small, vulnerability of, 12, 53–54, 60–62, 70
violence of, 88–95
willingness to die for, 11, 27, 69
cultural survival vehicles, separation of, 48, 49–62
clustered genetic similarities reflected in, 48, 55–56
distinguishing neighbors in, 50–52
geographical population density and, 53
of immigrant communities, 55
and lack of mobility, 54–56
linguistic, 49–54, 56, 57–58, 81
neighbor’s traits resisted by, 59
outside information flow resisted in, 57–59, 81
random drift and, 60–62
culture:
ancestral, 58–59
of animals, 8–9
arbitrary affiliation of, 4–6, 10, 27
arbitrary nature of, 4–5
artifacts of, 4, 26, 32–33, 44
elements of, 1–3, 26
emergence of, 1–2
geographically shared traits of, 58–59
imprinting on, 5–7
individuals’ devotion to, 5
invention of, 2
material, 59
mind control exercised by, 19, 26, 27
reproductive success promoted by, 11, 13, 24, 26, 27
survival of, 11
as survival strategy, 6, 7, 11, 13, 66
cumulative cultural adaptations, 45–49, 70
cuneiform tablets, 167
cut marks, on bones, 43, 310
Cyrano de Bergerac (Rostand), 290–91
Dalí, Salvador, 109
Daly, Martin, 315
Darwin, Charles, 9–10, 14, 25, 64, 80, 96, 151, 158, 164–69, 202, 242, 245
descent with modification concept of, 251–52, 296, 297
on language development, 296
sexual selection theory of, 153–54
at Tierra de Fuego, 260
Dawkins, Richard, 12, 21, 24, 158, 206, 239–40, 249, 272, 307
death, 10, 20, 64, 69, 76, 95, 115, 164, 262–63, 363
cannibalism and, 309–11
kin selection and, 71
of noncontributing tribal members, 95
parasites as largest cause of, 257–58
for religious beliefs, 21, 23, 145, 156, 158
of social amoebae, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 85
see also self-sacrifice, suicidal
debris, evolutionary, 128
deception, 13–14, 208, 307–40
detection of, 307, 310–11, 312–14, 320
genetic factors in, 314, 316–24; see also gender differences
hidden emotions in, 312
in infantile anonymity at birth, 314–16
intelligence and, 173–74, 309–16
mental illness and, 309–11, 313–14
rewards of, 312
self-, 307, 308, 312, 316–24
social learning and, 335–40
theory of mind in, 311–12, 330–31
truth vs., see truth
as “zero-sum” interaction, 313
decision making, 324–40
in brain, 325–27, 328–30, 332
collective ignorance and, 335, 363
imitation vs. innovation in, 335–40
defensive strategies, 245
defensive walls, 360
demography, rule of two in, 62–68, 93
Denisova Cave site, 31, 33, 34
Dennett, Daniel, 21, 22, 140, 324
depression, 150
Descartes, René, 139
Cogito, ergo sum statement of, 327
Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 296
descent with modification, 251–52, 296, 297
determinism, 14
detour task, 272
Diamond, Jared, 61, 291
Dictator game, 197, 200–201
dictatorships, 349, 363, 365–66
Dinka tribe, 9
diploid organisms, 316–17
Dirac, Paul, 128–29
diseases, 20, 95, 127, 160–61, 248, 257–58, 310, 360–61
dispersal, male vs. female, 322–23, 324
diversifying selection, 101
division of labor, 92–93, 99, 100, 184, 350
DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid), 73, 133–34, 181, 251–54, 277, 353
ancient, 29, 31, 33–34, 322–23
chromosomes of, 126–27, 252, 283–84, 318
as digital signaling system, 287–89
double helix of, 74
junk, 285–89, 292
language and, 283–93
mitochondrial, 318–19
nucleotides of, 252, 263, 287–89
see also genes; genetic factors
dogs, 255, 272, 346
domestic breeds of, 101–2
rabid, 20
rule-based behavior of, 245, 272
dolphins, 8
domestication, 254–64
of animals, 101–2, 114, 255–56, 263–64, 265, 266
of plants, 262
Dorig speakers, 50
dowries, 37
drug use, 22, 23, 160
performance-enhancing, 134, 159
dualism, 139–40
Duncan, Dayton, 52
Durham Cathedral, 157, 163
dyslexia, 128
Easter Island, 36
Ebola virus, 20
economics, 104–5, 176–77, 188, 196–201
barter, 220
common goods in, 213, 226–31
credit in, 219
interdependence in, 186, 350–51
law of supply and demand in, 121–22, 200
transferability in, 218–22
ultimatum game of, 196–200
economies of scale, 358–63
ectoparasites, 257–61
Edgerton, David, 242–43
ego, 321–22, 323
Einstein, Albert, 129, 328
elephants, 63, 73, 176
Ember, Carol, 92
embryonic development, 353–57
emergent properties, 351
Emin, Tracey, 138
empathy, 7, 8, 88, 266
endoparasites, 257–58, 317–18, 319
endurance running, 249–50, 257
England, 19, 38–39, 236–40, 296
Durham Cathedral in, 157, 163
London art galleries of, 138
London’s Millennium Bridge in, 237–38
moralistic aggression in, 224
Norman conquest of, 57, 306
Otmoor villages of, 54–55
Paley’s natural theology in, 238–40
English language, 57–58, 222–23, 297, 298, 300–302
adaptability of, 306
Americanisms in, 58, 305
Old to Modern, 295–96
as worldwide lingua franca, 303, 305–6
English speakers, 50, 57
engraved ochre stone at Blombos Cave site, 32, 113
enhancement selection, 231
environments, 67, 143, 326–27, 335–36
adaptations to, 7, 9, 38, 44, 45–46, 47–48, 66, 127, 151
carrying capacity of, 65–66, 93, 95, 297, 361
natural disasters in, 148
niche, 50
social, 102, 113, 119
in talent development, 102, 113–19
typically human, 114–15
Eothen (Kinglake), 282–83
epidemiology, 360–61
equality of opportunity, 125
Esperanto, 303
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 169, 308
Ethiopia, 30
Europe, 29–30, 33–34, 37, 44, 45, 48, 54–56, 263–64, 280, 363
adult milk digestion in, 263–64
ancient hunter-gatherers in, 297
languages of, 296–97
European Union, 186
eusociality, 73, 202
evolution, ix–x, 1–15, 45–46, 69–98, 125–31, 133, 136, 232, 233–66, 307, 340, 346
of altruism, 78–87
of brain, 234–36, 250–54, 311, 328–29, 338, 356
common ancestors in, 251–54, 263
continuing, 264–66
convergent, 134
of cooperation, 174, 177, 204–13
cultural, 21–27, 36–37, 45–49, 108–9, 129–31, 134–35
of cultural altruism, 204–13
Darwinian, see Darwin, Charles
of endurance running, 249–50
free will and, 10
group selection in, 96–98
independent, 130
of language, 220–21, 279–83
major transitions in, 75, 76–77
of menopause, 67
naturalistic fallacy and, 14
as progressive, 129–31
recent rapid, 125–27
replicators in, 73–76
of risk taking, 123
of spite, 188
time in, 9
in typically human environments, 114–15
variety in, 239–40
of viruses, rapidity of, 25
see also natural selection; reproductive success; survival strategies
evolutionarily stable strategies, 119–25, 336
evolutionary biology, ix–x, 7, 11, 20, 22, 71, 75, 101, 120, 154, 188, 204–13, 239, 359
evolutionary debris, 128
Evolution of Language, The (Fitch), 278
Evolution of Technology, The (Basalla), 242
exchange, cooperative, 100, 103–5, 108, 124, 311–12, 313
Extended Phenotype, The (Dawkins), 12
extinctions, 60, 183
of Homo, 30, 33, 37, 43, 45, 68
human near-, 4
of languages, 305–6
modern humans as cause of, 37
of words, 301
extreme male brain, 128
fairness, sense of, 8, 124, 177, 190, 195–201, 347, 367
in ultimatum game, 196–200
false beliefs, 132, 141–45, 148, 150–53, 156–58, 231, 308, 338, 339, 348
false-belief tests, 42
Fear and Trembling (Kierkegaard), 157–58
Federal Bureal of Investigation (FBI), 187
female dispersal, 322–23
Fertile Crescent, 297
figurines, sculpted, 30, 44, 112–13
Venus statues, 261–62
financial crises, 186
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br /> fire ants, 206–7
Fitch, Tecumseh, 278
fitness, 118–19, 121, 154, 229–30, 272
flaking stone tools, 39–40
Flores, island of, 34–35
food sharing, 228–31
Foré tribe, 310
forgiveness, 190, 193–95
fossil record, fossils, 2, 30, 32, 34, 37, 127, 156–57, 246
4’33” (Cage), 132–33
FOXP2 gene, 254, 277
France, 156–57
cave paintings in, 110–12, 168
linguistic isolationism of, 57–58
free will, 10, 273, 324–26
French language, 57–58, 296, 297, 298, 300, 306
Freud, Sigmund, 321–22, 323
fruit flies, 262, 284
Fuegians, 35, 61, 260
fur, 256–61
Gabbra tribe, viii, 52
gametes, 5
Gandhi, Mahatma, 193
gazelles, 245
stotting by, 214–15, 230
gender differences, 316–24
in endoparasites, 317–18, 319
male vs. female dispersal in, 322–23, 324
in reproductive potential, 260–61, 320–21
sex chromosomes in, 318
genes, 1–6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 19–27, 45–49, 64, 68, 73, 75–76, 77–78, 88, 133–34, 143, 152, 160, 205, 272, 276, 283–93, 303, 308–9, 352–53, 369
for adult digestion of milk, 263–64
alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh), 262
alleles of, 126–27, 316–24
altruist, 79–81, 85
ASPM, 265
bacterial exchange of, 3
cooperation promoted by, 10–11
determination vs. influence by, 114–15
expression of, 134, 253, 254, 286–87, 320–24
for eye color, 316
FOXP2, 254, 277
in gametes, 5
greenbeard, 206–9, 211–18, 222
group differences in, 48, 55–56
growth factor receptor-bound protein 10 (Grb10), 324
handicap principle and, 154–55
human-Neanderthal shared, 24, 34, 38, 44
insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2), 321
interspecies sharing of, 284–85
linked, 126–27
lost by domesticated cells, 255
melanocortin I receptor, 259–60
memes vs., 21–26
microcephalin, 265
mitochondrial, 319
mutations of, 239, 240, 253, 263–64, 295
number of, 283–84
of parasites, 20
prion, 310
proteins made by, 253, 286, 288
recent common ancestry shown by, 4
recombination of, 126
for red hair, 34
regulation of, 286–89
as replicators, 12
restricted flow of, 54–56
selfish, 10–11
similarity of, human near-extinction demonstrated by, 4
of social insects, 71, 76, 77–78
transposons in, 285–87
Genesis, Book of, 157–58
genetic enhancers, 133–34
genetic factors, 33–34, 44, 59–62, 71, 202, 247, 251–66