We Sell Drugs: The Alchemy of US Empire

by Suzanna Reiss

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  Index

  Abbott Laboratories, 48, 249n63, 249n66

  Adams, Roger, 133, 150

  addiction: coca and, 112, 122, 126, 137–38, 156–59; enemy peddling of, 181–82, 194–95, 212–15, 268n16, 271n66; international regulation and, 112, 122, 126, 137–38, 143, 154–55; legal definitions of, 155–60, 202–3; national regulation and, 196–205, 273–4n96, 275n124; policing of, 9, 12, 114, 173, 195–205, 217–18; portrayal of, 64, 126, 158–61, 194–95, 202–5, 272n71, 275n126; potential for producing, 90, 154–5, 159–60, 203; race and, 126, 161, 194–202, 205–7, 215, 276n135; research into, 159–63, 267n11; war and, 48, 194

  Addiction Producing Drugs Section (WHO), 143

  Addiction Research Center (USPHS), 159–61, 202–3, 267n11. See also Narcotic Farm; Public Health Service

  Africa, 209: drug markets and, 8, 72, 74, 145; political freedom and, 9, 164, 174–75, 187–91, 205, 213

  African Americans: drugs, policing and, 90, 194–96, 198, 200–2, 205, 207, 208–9, 215, 227, 276n135; international solidarity and, 175, 182, 195, 209, 213–14

  Agency for International Development (US), 165, 169

  alchemy: drug control and, 80, 89, 91, 137–38, 177, 209; pharmaceutical industry and, 10, 71, 80, 134, 137–38; United States imperialism and, 136, 139, 163, 209

  alcohol, 156, 172–3, 205

  Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana, 114, 115, 257

  Alien Property Custodian, 81

  Allied Command, 48–50, 254n7

  Allied Control Authority, 49

  Allied Health Committee, 49

  Allied Military Authorities, 50

  Allies (World War II), 179, 188; coca, cocaine, Coca-Cola and, 20, 22, 25, 32; drug control and, 48–50, 254n9; drug provisioning, 16, 20–22, 25, 34, 39, 41, 51; economic controls and, 15, 22, 33, 41, 143; Latin America and, 35–37, 39, 41

  American Anthropological Association, 119

  American Association for the Advancement of Science, 133

  American Cyanamid Company, 48

  American Management Association, 164

  American Pharmaceutical Association, 217

  American Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ Association, 17, 110, 191

  American Psychiatric Association, 161

  Andean Indian Project (United Nations), 166

  Anslinger, Harry J., 237n23: coca market and, 25, 29–32, 81–83, 88–90, 98–99, 108–110, 127–129, 135–37, 139–42; Cold War, Red-baiting and, 115, 174–75, 179, 182–85, 189–92, 210–11, 269n33, 271n59, 271n66; drug manufacturers and, 20, 25, 29–32, 49–50, 66, 76, 81–83, 88–90, 108, 127–29, 136–37, 140–141, 217, 219, 255n24; drug stockpiling and, 18 20–22, 29–31, 56–58, 64, 66, 76; international drug control and, 4, 20, 25, 49–50, 55–58, 98–99, 108–110, 121, 128–29, 139–41, 155, 179, 182–85, 189–92, 217–219, 258n46, 269n33, 271n59; international police collaboration and, 113, 115, 129, 219, 257n44; national drug regulation and, 55–59, 135–37, 141–42, 155, 159–60, 182–83, 191, 196, 198, 200–3, 205, 217–18, 258n46, 271n59; World War II and, 18, 20–22, 29–32, 49–50, 55–56

  antibiotics, 18, 78, 142

  anticolonialism. See empire

  antimalarials, 21, 145–46, 263n31. See also chinchona; quinine

  Argentina, 102, 111, 211, 237n29, 254n10, 254n12

  Army and Navy Munitions Board, 21, 66, 77–78, 236n11

  Army Chemical Center, 119

  Army Chemical Warfare Service, 78

  Army Medical Corps, 18

  Axis powers, 48, 182; economic warfare against, 10, 15, 26, 38, 41, 43, 51; Latin American trade, 10, 26, 28, 35, 39, 42, 239n47

  Aymara, 101, 104, 116, 123, 130, 134, 225. See also Indian

  barbiturates, 203, 205, 273n108

  Batista, Fulgencio, 210

  Bayer, 38–39, 242n100

  Belgium, 91, 189, 269n43

  Biological Warfare, 77, 179–81, 268n21

  Biological Warfare Committee, 77

  Blakey, Art, 175

  Bloomfield, John J., 165

  Board of Economic Warfare (US), 18, 33–34, 94, 164, 232. See also economic warfare

  Boggs Act (1951), 197–98, 200, 273n108

  Bolivia: coca cultivation, consumption, and trade, 22–24, 27, 30, 50, 94, 100–2, 104, 116, 122, 128, 166, 171, 237nn28–29, 238n32, 253n2, 254n7, 255n17, 266n83; indigenous peoples in, 9, 105, 124, 167–69, 171, 225; international drug control and, 9, 50, 98, 103–4, 106, 109–13, 115–18, 121–24, 130, 135, 166, 168, 211–12, 220–22, 224–26, 277n160; US economic influence and, 35–37, 47, 85, 94–95, 128, 163–65, 240nn67–68, 243n111, 257n40, 43, 258n45, 260n79, 265n76; World War II and, 16–17, 33, 36–40, 42–47, 241n91, 242n94,

  Bolivian Development Corporation, 42

  Bolivian Ministry of Public Health and Hygiene, 41, 118

  Borneo, 24. See also Netherlands East Indies

  Brazil, 211–212, 214, 254n7

  Britain. See United Kingdom

  Brown, James W., 223

  Bulgaria, 184, 68n29

  Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 77

  Bureau of Prisons, 159

  Burroughs Wellcome & Company, 110

  Bush, Vannevar, 78, 145

  Bustamente Rivera, José Luis, 114

  caffeine, 26, 90, 94, 250n75

  camphor, 71

  Canada, 6, 109, 260n79

  Canfield, Gordon, 198

  cannabis, 10, 247n29. See also Marijuana

  capitalism: foreign investment, 35, 37; global inequality and, 9, 87, 101, 106, 149, 191–92, 258n47; relationship to drug control, 1, 11–12, 55, 57, 107, 110, 161, 173, 176, 191–92, 225–27; social engineering and, 161, 163–66, 169, 171–73; US expansion and, 4, 8, 54, 68–69, 71, 73–75, 84–88, 93–95, 103, 227

  Carnegie Institution, 119, 169

  Carranza, Fortunato, 120

  Castro, Fidel, 210–15, 277n174

  Cataví Massacre, 37

  Central Intelligence Agency, 63, 267n11

  Cerro de Pasco Copper, 35, 244n121

  Chemical Advisory Committee (Munitions Board), 78–9

  Chile, 102, 111, 211, 237n39

  China (People’s Republic of China), 175, 188; drug control and, 190–92, 195, 200, 271n59; drug trafficking accusations and, 6, 178–82, 192–94, 210; Korean War and, 63, 177–78, 183, 268n21; nationalists (Kuomintang), 177–78

  chinchona, 145, 171, 240n68. See also quinine

  cigarettes. See tobacco

  Civil Rights, 2, 12, 227; anticolonialism and, 174–75, 206–9, 213–15; policing and, 194–96, 200–1

  Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Company: coca flavoring extract and, 23–25, 27, 30, 80–83, 92, 97, 99, 102–3, 139, 222–23, 238n31, 250n77, 262n16; collaboration with US government and, 32, 76, 81–84, 89–92, 150; drug control and, 1, 7, 10, 25, 30, 81–83, 91–92, 99, 116, 127–29, 138–141, 219, 222–23, 238n31, 250n77, 278n8, 279n15; global expansion and, 32, 84–96, 138–40, 168, 171

  Coca-Cola Export Corporation, 84

  cocaine, 1; Coca-Cola and, 30, 88, 90, 93, 103, 129–30, 140, 222, 262n16; coca consumption and, 37, 112, 121–25, 128, 137–39, 158; international drug control and, 7–10, 20, 97, 100–1, 107, 112–13, 120, 137–39, 154–55, 211–212, 220–24, 258n52; Peruvian production and exports of, 23–29, 32, 46, 48, 83, 102, 107, 112–16, 218–19, 238n32, 254n11, 256n39, 257n41, 258n49, 258n52, 279n15; policing of, 4–6, 59, 65, 113–16, 129, 158, 165, 177, 197, 210–12, 218–19, 256n39, 256n39, 257n41, 257nn43–44, 258n49; synthetics and, 140–143, 155, 22
3, 239n46, 262n20; US drug policies and, 7–8, 10, 23–24, 56, 67, 88, 97, 102, 155, 176–77, 197, 203, 223; US manufacturing and exports of, 6–8, 24–27, 30–32, 103, 133, 140–42, 223–24; World War II and, 23–30, 259n61

  coca leaves, 1–2; derivative manufacturing, 6–7, 10, 17, 25, 77, 80–84, 89–91, 102–3, 132–42, 159, 219–25; drug control and, 7, 9–12, 17, 20, 23–25, 28, 30, 50, 59, 76, 81, 98–131, 135–42, 151, 154–58, 165–73, 182, 185, 211–12, 219–27, 255n17; South American cultivation and consumption of, 6, 9, 12, 16, 23–24, 27–29, 37, 46, 48, 83, 94, 100–106, 111–12, 117–136, 157–72, 224–27, 237n28, 254nn7, 254n9; US market power and, 8, 20, 22–30, 48, 80–84, 93, 96–98, 102–3, 132–34, 165, 173, 220–24; World War II and, 25–32, 254n9

  Coleman, Ornette, 209

  Colombia, 13, 27, 86, 111, 115, 209, 211, 253n2, 254n7, 277n160

  colonial, colonialism. See empire

  Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf (United Nations), 12, 103, 156, 176; Andean official collaboration with, 108–14, 118–2, 129, 256n26; coca chewing and, 105–13, 116–19, 120–21, 124, 126, 128–30, 134–35, 138, 166; coca market and, 27, 111–12, 116, 254n7, 255n17; US influence on, 106–11, 117, 121–22, 127–30, 134–35, 141

  Commission on Narcotic Drugs (United Nations), 186; Anslinger and, 4, 50, 98–99, 108, 176, 217, 258n46; coca market and, 50, 99–101, 103, 108–11, 123, 155, 211, 220–22; drug control initiatives and, 11–12, 49, 99, 108–11, 150–51, 154–56, 159, 176, 219; drug trafficking and, 49, 178–80

  Commission on Resource Mobilization (United States), 70–71

  Committee on Foreign Relations (US Senate), 187, 193

  communism, communists: challenges to US and, 91, 177–81, 189–90; Cold War containment and, 6, 54, 62–63, 68, 164, 186–87; drug trafficking accusations and, 6, 115, 175, 178–79, 181–82, 192, 195, 211, 214–15, 227, 268n24, 271n66; revolutionary struggles and, 169, 189–90, 206, 208–9, 213

  Congress of Americanists, 119

  Connor, John T., 80, 164

  Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs (1931). See Geneva Convention