How the Brain Learns to Read
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teaching strategies for, 180–189
textbook selection and, 178
vocabulary and, 181–183
Context clues, 183
Cooperative learning groups, 189
Corpus callosum, 14
Decodable texts, 96
Deep orthography, 40, 41, 110
de Glopper, K., 97
Dehaene, S., 36
Decoding
defined, 42
Detection of target sounds in noise, 128
Differentiated instruction, 189
Digraphs, 41
Disciplinary literacy, 202–205
Dyslexia, 119, 220
cures for, caution about, 141
developmental, defined, 123
famous people with, 140
gender differences in, 127
genetic component of, 127
other languages, occurrence in, 130
persistence of, 139–140
phonological deficits and, 124
visual recognition and, 126
writing and, 127, 129
Early intervention, 114, 140, 143
ingredients of programs in, 145–154
Educational neuroscience, 4, 155
Ehri, L., 42
Electroencephalography, 2, 3
Elkonion boxes, 85
Embedding, 48, 49
Encoding in spelling, 82
English language learners
cooperative learning strategies and, 111–112
monitoring reading progress of, 114–115
orthography and, 110–111
Error monitoring, 166–167
Event-related potentials, 16–17
Evidence-based practices, 77
Expository text, 105, 162, 184, 186
Eye movements during reading, 64–65
Family settings and literacy, 74
Fixations during reading, 64–65
Flowchart, 194, 197
Fluency, in reading, 63–64, 89–93
teaching strategies for, 90–92, 156–169
tutoring in, 164–165
Frequency of common verbs in English, 22
Frith, U. 34
Frontal lobe
children at risk for reading and, 60
comprehension and, 102, 123, 159, 163, 187
creativity and, 201
decision-making and, 33, 107
dyslexia and, 126, 213
event-related potentials and, 16–17
location in brain, 12
meaning and, 123
memory and, 127
problem solving and, 162
spoken language and, 13
working memory and, 51
Functional magnetic resonance imaging, 2, 3, 27
Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 2, 3
Genetics and dyslexia, 124, 127, 132
Gists, 54–56
Grade 3 reading skills, 210–211
Grammatical lexicon, 37
Grapheme, 41, 62
decoding and, 42, 43
defined, 39
orthography and, 40
phoneme-grapheme connection, 2, 37, 125, 172
phonics instruction and, 79–80
phonological stage and, 34, 78
Graphic organizers, 5,
comprehension and, 103, 184, 186, 193–201
English language learners and, 112
reading problems and, 145, 174
Gray matter in brain, 126
Gray Oral Reading Test, 144
Hispanic students’ achievement in reading, 119–121, 122
Image-based words, 16–17
Imagery
comprehension and, 104, 184, 185
memory devices and, 99
pre-reading activities and, 190
vocabulary and, 16–17
Immediate memory, 50–51, 55
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 146
Insensitivity to rhyme, 132
Intelligence
dyslexia and, 123, 124, 140, 175
reading success and, 36–37, 50
Intensity during reading, 74
Internet sites, 6
concept maps and, 195, 199
content material and, 180, 181
dyslexia and, 174
graphic organizers and, 103
older struggling readers and, 189
Laboratory studies in reading, 76
Language comprehension
explicit, 30
inferred, 30–31
reading comprehension and, 50
toddlers and, 17–19
Language gap, 17–19
Lesions in word form area, 127
Lexical-orthographic connection
Lexical route, in reading, 63
Lexicon
grammatical, 37
orthographic, 37
phonological, 37
semantic, 37
types of, 37
Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test, 144
Linguistic knowledge, 77, 95, 96–97, 100
Literacy skills, 72–74
Literature circles, 90–91
Locating the main idea, 185–186
Long-term memory, 4
comprehension and, 159
decoding and, 78
fluency and, 156
graphic organizers and, 194, 198, 201
spelling and, 85
verb usage and, 22
Long-term storage, 51, 55, 58
Magnetic resonance imaging, 2, 28
Magnetoencephalography, 2, 3, 124
Main idea
locating, 185–186
questioning for, 157
Matrixes, 198–200
Meaning, 1, 17, 19
brain processing and, 25–26
comprehension and, 30, 34, 46–48, 49, 70, 71, 77, 96–107, 158–162, 168, 184, 187
decoding, 112
direct instruction and, 180
fluency and, 87–89, 91, 92, 164
frontal lobe and, 123
language development for, 10, 13
lexicons and, 37
morphemes and, 16, 44–45, 211
orthography and, 40, 43
phonemic awareness and, 79, 131, 150
phonological awareness and, 73
plasticity of neural networks and, 35
practice and, 65–66, 67
recognizing, 27–28
semantics and, 19–20, 23, 220
spelling and, 46, 84, 86, 113
visual word form area and, 59–60, 61–64
vocabulary and, 176, 179, 181–183, 192, 213
working memory and, 52–54, 57
Memory, 21, 79, 190
comprehension and, 56–57
cooperative learning groups and, 161
deficits in. 129
immediate memory, 50–51
rote, 139
sensory, 13
short-term memory, 50, 176
spelling and, 83, 85
spoken language and, 28, 29
visual, 183
visual cues in, 43
writing and, 161
See also Long-term memory; Phonological memory; Working memory
Memory networks, modifying of, 56–57
Mental imagery, 185
Mental lexicon, 16, 18
Minimum-distance principle, 48
Module-within-a-module pattern, 27
Morpheme
defined, 15–16
dyslexia and, 170
in memory systems, 28
in multiple lexicons, 37
in semantic networks, 23
literacy skills and, 72
spelling and, 82
spoken language and, 19
teacher knowledge about, 209
types of, 44–45
Morphology, 213
comprehension and, 49
defined, 20, 44
in semantic networks, 23, 24
phonemic awareness and, 45
Motivation for
reading, 74, 75, 158, 162
technology’s effect on, 210
tutoring and, 168, 169
Narrative text, 184
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1, 117–121
National Early Literacy Panel, 72, 145
National Institute for Literacy, 35
National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth, 110–111
National Reading Panel, 2, 70–71, 75–76, 145, 165, 209
National Research Council, 70–71, 75–76
Negation in reading, 48–49
Neuronal recycling, 36
Neuroscience and reading, 220
Next Generation Science Standards, 204
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 71, 118
Nonwords, 59
Occipital lobe, 12, 17, 129
Occipitotemporal area, 59
Older students, reading strategies for, 107–109, 155–169
Onsets, 10, 37–38, 150, 152
Oral reading
accuracy of, 132
fluency in, 132–133
monitoring and feedback with, 165–166
Oral Reading Accuracy calculation, 167, 168
Oral Reading Fluency calculation, 167, 168
Orthographic lexicon, 37
Orthography, 41
deep, 40, 110
defined, 40
in dyslexia, 130
in spelling, 82, 86
phonics and, 111
reading problems and, 123, 124
shallow, 40
Overlearning, 156
Paired reading, 92
Paraphrasing, 187–188
Parentese, 16
Parent participation, 216–217
Parents as Teachers program, 18
Parietal lobe, 12, 17, 61
PASS process, 159
Passive voice, 47–48
in reading, 23
Pathways of reading, 58–62
for beginning readers, 59–60
for intermediate readers, 60
for skilled readers, 60
Peer Assisted Learning Strategies Program, 153
Perception of sequential sounds, 128
Phases of word recognition, 42–44
Phoneme
as part of morphemes, 19, 20
defined, 15
dyslexia and, 149, 170, 171
grapheme connections, 2, 37, 42, 125, 172
learning of, 15, 16, 72, 75
learning to read and, 34, 37, 38, 78–82, 85, 125–126, 212
memory and, 28, 29, 52, 126
morphology and, 45
number in different languages, 40–41
orthography of, 110
reading problems and, 122, 146, 147–152
recognition of, 39–40, 42, 46, 59, 128
spelling and, 70
spoken language and, 10, 12, 131
teacher recognition of, 209
visual word form area and, 62–64
Phonemic awareness, 15, 20, 23
as predictor of reading success, 73
compound, 150–151
defined, 38
developing in struggling readers, 146–152
learning to read and, 38–39
Phonics
decodable texts with, 96
defined, 38–39
instruction in, 77, 79–82, 115, 207, 211–213, 215
oral reading and, 166
orthography and, 111
reading programs for, 153
teacher preparation in, 209–210
Phonics approach
critics of, 80
to teaching reading, 69–71
Phonological awareness
deficits in, 124
defined, 37–38
instruction in, 77–79
Phonological Awareness Test, 144
Phonological lexicon, 37
Phonological route, in reading, 63–64
Phonologic memory
comprehension and, 52–53
deficits in, 126–127
decoding and, 50
early literacy skills in, 72–73
Plasticity, 36
Plasticity of neural networks, 35–36
Positron emission tomography, 2, 3, 127
Practicing reading, 75, 79
Prior knowledge, 184
Professional development, 209
principals and, 214, 216
teachers and, 211–213
Prosody, 15
Questioning to find main idea, 157
Questions for Discussion/Reflection, 31, 67, 94, 115, 141, 176, 205, 221
Question the author, 162–163
Quick Reads Program, 154
Rapid speaking, 27
Reader’s theatre, 91–92
Reading
early stages of, 36–46
lexical route in, 63
phonological route in, 63–64
practice, importance of, 65–67
predictors of success in, 73
skills by Grade 3, 210–211
universal nature of, 62
Reading aloud, 162, 188
Reading achievement, 118–121
Reading comprehension, 45–50, 71
attention therapy and, 163–164
content area reading and, 184–188
decoding ability and, 50
graphic organizers and, 103
intelligence and, 50
language comprehension and, 50
monitoring for, 102
morphology and, 49
older students and, 107, 158–159
paraphrasing, 187–188
semantic organizers and, 103
syntax and, 47–48
teaching for, 102–107
text, 100–107
tutoring for, 168–169
Reading models
Dehaene’s model, 39
Frith’s three-phase model, 34
Reading problems
advice to parents of students with, 175–176
advice to students with, 173–174
early indicators of, 132–139
graphic organizers and, 145
lesions in the word form area, 127
linguistic causes of, 124–127
nonlinguistic causes of, 128–130
Response to Intervention and, 133–139
spoken language difficulties and, 131–132
test-taking and, 172–173
Reading programs
Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition, 112–114
Concept-oriented reading instruction, 104–106
Corrective reading, 153
older students and, 155
Peer Assisted learning Strategies, 153
Quick Reads, 154
Success for All, 153
Targeted Reading Intervention, 154
Reading Recovery, 111, 153
Reciprocal teaching, 156–157, 191, 192–193
Regressions during reading, 64–65
Rehearsal, 52, 55, 157, 180, 185–186, 187
Repeated oral reading, 89, 156, 162
Research studies, types of, 208
Response to Intervention, 133–139, 146
Restructuring, in memory, 57
Rewriting content material, 188
Rhyme generation, 152
Rimes, 152
Saccades, 64–65
Schema, 57
Semantic lexicon, 37
Semantic network
morphology level of, 23
representations of, 26–27
sentence level of, 24–25
vocabulary level of, 23
Semantic organizers, 103
Semantics, 18
brain storage of, 17
instruction in, 100, 121, 123
learning to read and, 60
vocabulary and, 19–20, 97
Sensory memory, 13
Sentences
comprehension from, 168–169, 184, 212–213
construction of
, 25–28, 47–49, 88, 97
English language learners and, 113
explicit type, 30, 104
fluency and, 156
memory and, 52–54
reading problems and, 124, 134, 148
semantic network and, 23–24
spoken language in, 13, 15, 19
syntactic network and, 20–21
vocabulary and, 98–100
Shallow orthography, 40, 110, 130
Shared reading
in literacy, 73
to teach fluency, 91
Shaywitz, S., 58, 155
Short-term memory, 50, 176
Silent reading, 89, 90, 112
Sound-frequency discrimination, 128
Spelling
development of, 82–84
importance in reading, 45–46
invented, 82–83
phonemes and, 70
teaching of, 84–86
texting and, 83
writing effects on, 87–88
Spoken language
development of, 10–13
gender differences in learning, 14–15
levels of comprehension of,
natural ability of learning,
processing of, 13–14
reading difficulties and, 131–132
writing and, 62
Story-mapping, 158
Success for All Program, 153
Swanborn, M. S. L., 97
Syntactic network
Syntax
English language learners and, 23
language hierarchy and, 19–23
passive voice and, 48
word order and, 48
Tape/digital-assisted reading, 91
Targeted Reading Intervention Program, 154
Teacher preparation, 209
Teachers as researchers, 218–219
Teaching reading
balanced approach, 71
brief history of, 69–70
phonics approach, 69–71
preparation for, 209
using students’ strengths and, 213
what teachers need to know about, 213–214
whole-language approach, 69–71
whole-word approach, 69–70
Technology’s effect on motivation to read, 210
Temporal processing impairment, 124–126
Texting and spelling, 83
Tuning, in memory, 57
Tutoring, 111, 153, 154, 165–169
Venn diagrams, 197–198
Verbal-based words, 16–17
Verbs
brain processing of, 13
in minimum-distance principle, 48
in syntactic network, 21–23
irregular, 21–22, 101
most common, 22
Visual magnocellular-deficit hypothesis, 128–129
Visual memory. 183
Visual processing speed, 124–126
Visual recognition system
development of, 9–11
dyslexia and, 126
language processing and, 46, 50
mental imagery and, 185
visual word form area and, 59, 60, 63
Visual word form area, 34, 59–60, 127, 140
Vocabulary, 96
acquisition of, 15–19, 97
impact of television on, 19
teaching strategies in, 98–99
toddlers and, 17–19
Webs, 201