Age of Youth in Argentina
Page 36
Notes
Abbreviations
AAF-BN
Archivo Arturo Frondizi, Biblioteca Nacional
AGN
Archivo General de la Nación
AICA
Agencia Informativa Católica Argentina
AO-UBA
Archivo Oral de la Universidad de Buenos Aires
CBS
Columbia Broadcasting System
CEDINCI
Centro de Documentación e Investigación de la Cultura de Izquierda
CEHPFA
Centro de Estudios Históricos de la Policía Federal Argentina
CENIDE
Centro Nacional de Información Documental Educativa
CGT
Confederación General del Trabajo
CNNAF
Consejo Nacional de la Niñez, Adolescencia y Familia
DIPPBA
Dirección de Inteligencia de la Policía de la Provincia de Buenos Aires
FLH
Archivo del Frente de Liberación Homosexual
FYL
Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Archive
JVGA
Instituto del Profesorado J. V. González Archive
JWT
John Walter Thompson Company Archives, John Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising, and Marketing History, Duke University
LMF
Liga de Madres de Familia Archive
MPDH
Museo Pablo Ducrós Hicken Archive
OPJ
Obra de Protección de la Joven Archive
PCA
Partido Comunista Argentino Archive
RCA
Radio Corporation of America
RECEM
Revista de la Escuela de Comando y Estado Mayor de la Fuerza Aérea Argentina
SISBI-UBA
Biblioteca del Sistema de Información y Bibliotecas, University de Buenos Aires
Introduction
1. “Informe sobre la juventud,” Confirmado No. 65, September 15, 1966, 34–37.
2. For reformism as a cultural and political identity for the “progressive” middle classes, see Sigal, Intelectuales y poder, 63–80; for general accounts of the University Reform Movement in 1920s and 1930s Argentina, see Biagini, La Reforma Universitaria.
3. For the transnational reverberations of that figure, see Modern Girl around the World Research Group, “The Modern Girl”; for Buenos Aires, see Cecilia Tossounian, “The Argentine Modern Girl.”
4. For a vivid picture of the petiteros’s sociability and fashion, see Goldar, Buenos Aires; for insights into sociability in social clubs as it is related to football, see Archetti, Masculinities.
5. For those metaphorical capabilities, see Passerini, “Youth as a Metaphor for Social Change.”
6. Torre, “A partir del Cordobazo,” 21.
7. Cattaruzza, “El mundo por hacer.”
8. For the pioneering psychological and anthropological studies of adolescence and youth, see Hall, “Initiation into Adolescence”; and Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa. For an overview of social science discourse on youth, see Bucholtz, “Youth and Cultural Practice.”
9. Mintz, “Reflections on Age.”
10. Mannheim, “The Problem of Generations,” 291.
11. See, for example, Sirinelli, Les baby boomers; Austin and Willard, Generations of Youth; Roseman, Generations in Conflict. For a discussion of the heuristic validity of “youth” vs. “generation,” which informed my own reflections, see Jobs, Riding the New Wave, 7–9.
12. Medovoi, Rebels, 216.
13. David Viñas offers his portrayal of that “frustrated generation” in his novel Dar la cara.
14. Gillis, Youth and History; Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful.
15. See Torre and Pastoriza, “La democratización del bienestar.”
16. Jobs, Riding the New Wave.
17. For discussions of youth and sexuality in British Canada and Tanzania, see Adams, The Trouble with Normal; and Ivaska, “Anti-Mini Militants Meet Modern Misses.”
18. Herzog, Sex after Fascism; Sohn, ge tendre; Bailey, Sex in the Heartland.
19. Cosse, Pareja, sexualidad y familia.
20. Herzog, Sex after Fascism, 153–70; Collins, Modern Love, 134–60.
21. Parsons, “Age and Sex,” 89–102.
22. Fowler, Youth Culture in Modern Britain, 126–36; Gorgolini, “Il Consumi”; Osgerby, Youth in Great Britain, 30–49; Palladino, Teenagers, 97–115; Sohn, ge tendre, 79–90.
23. I take the notion of the transnational as “units that spill over and seep through national borders” from Seigel, “Beyond Compare.”
24. For Mexico, Brazil, and Chile, respectively, see Zolov, Refried Elvis; Dunn, Brutality Garden; and Barr-Melej, “Siloísmo and the Left in Allende’s Chile.” Two recent doctoral dissertations are in the process of becoming books: Barbosa, “Insurgent Youth,” and Langland, “Speaking of Flowers.”
25. See especially O’Donnell, Bureaucratic Authoritarianism; De Riz, La política en suspenso; and Altamirano, Bajo el signo de las masas.
26. Hilb and Lutzky, La nueva izquierda argentina; Terán, Nuestros años sesenta; Sigal, Intelectuales y poder; Altamirano, Peronismo y cultura de izquierda.
27. Among the most important, see Brennan, Labor Wars in Cordoba; Gordillo, Córdoba en los ’60; Pucciarelli, La primacía de la política. For the histories of the most prominent guerrilla groups and their connected political branches, see Gillespie, Soldiers of Perón; Sigal and Verón, Perón o muerte; Pozzi, Por las sendas argentinas.
28. See especially Vezzetti, Sobre la violencia revolucionaria and Pasado y presente; the essay on Montoneros in Sarlo, La pasión y la excepción; and Calveiro, Política y/o violencia.
29. Sorensen, A Turbulent Decade Remembered, 7.
30. King, El Di Tella; Sigal, Intelectuales y poder; Castagna, “La generación del 60”; Longoni and Mestman, Del Di Tella a “Tucumán Arde”; Sarlo, La batalla de las ideas; Giunta, Vanguardia, internacionalismo y política; Gilman, Entre la pluma y el fusil; Aguilar, “La generación del 60.”
31. Pujol, La década rebelde; Podalsky, Specular City; Varela, La televisión criolla.
32. Feijóo and Nari, “Women in Argentina during the 1960s”; Nari, “Abrir los ojos, abrir la cabeza”; Vasallo, “Movilización, política y orígenes”; Barrancos, Mujeres en la sociedad argentina; Felitti, “La revolución de la píldora”; Cosse, Pareja, sexualidad y familia.
Chapter 1
1. Telma Reca de Acosta, “Las jóvenes generaciones en un mundo de cambios acelerados,” Revista de la Universidad de Buenos Aires 7.3 (July–September 1962): 405.
2. Torre and Pastoriza, “La democratización del bienestar,” 298–99; Ministerio de Educación y Justicia, La enseñanza media (1914–63), vol. 1, 58–59, 283.
3. David Wiñar, “Aspectos sociales del desarrollo educativo argentino, 1900–1970,” Revista del Centro de Estudios Educativos No. 4 (September 1974): 14.
4. Dussel and Pineau, “De cuando la clase obrera entró al paraíso,” 107–43.
5. Carli, Niñez, pedagogía y política, 305–6; Rein, Politics and Education in Argentina, 51–52; Caimari, Perón y la Iglesia Católica, 281–82; Plotkin, Mañana es San Perón, 163–64; Leonard, Politicians, Pupils, and Priests, 132.
6. Torre, Introduction to Nueva Historia Argentina, 8:58.
7. Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight, 148–51.
8. Perón y la juventud, 9, 21.
9. Juan Domingo Perón, “Mensaje Presidencial a la Asamblea Legislativa,” Diario de Sesiones de la Cámara de Diputados No. 1, May 1, 1955, 18, 26–27.
10. “Mensaje a la juventud,” Mundo Peronista No. 86, May 15, 1955, 28.
11. “Inauguró hoy las monumentales obras de la UES,” La Razón, January 16, 1954, 1.
12. The CGU was created in 1950 and opened chapters in most faculties. In 1954, a survey of the faculty of engineering at the University of Buenos Aires showed that the reformist center had 4,000 membe
rs and the CGU only 200. See Walter, Student Politics in Argentina, 139.
13. Mangone and Warley, Universidad y peronismo, 10–38, Kleiner, 20 años de movimiento estudiantil reformista, 103–19.
14. “¡Vayan a bañarse!,” Mundo Peronista No. 48, August 15, 1953, 13.
15. Acha and Ben, “Amorales, patoteros, chongos y pitucos.”
16. “Una residencia presidencial para los estudiantes,” Mundo Peronista No. 45, July 15, 1953, 35–36; “El regalo del General para las estudiantas,” Mundo Peronista No. 51, October 1, 1953, 25–28; “Una nueva sede para estudiantes,” Mundo Peronista No. 55, December 1, 1953, 7–9.
17. “Una juventud que se maneja a sí misma,” Mundo Peronista No. 56, December 15, 1953, 10; “Gracias a Perón y a Eva Perón vemos cristalizados nuestros sueños,” Mundo Peronista No. 58, January 15, 1954, 21.
18. “La UES es la Nueva Argentina,” Mundo Peronista No. 78, December 15, 1954, 18.
19. Ibid.; see also Santiago Giralt’s nonfiction novel, Nelly R.; and Kriger, Cine y peronismo.
20. “La Residencia Presidencial, sede de una alegre estudiantina,” Esto Es No. 11, February 9, 1954, 6–9.
21. La Unión de Estudiantes Secundarios (Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Prensa y Difusión, 1955), 15–19; “La fiesta de la UES,” Mundo Peronista No. 68, July 15, 1954, 26–29.
22. Scarzanella, “El ocio peronista,” 65–85.
23. For a vivid description of the dance halls, see Goldar, Buenos Aires, 139–40.
24. Ads appeared in La Razón, February 28, 1954, 2, and March 2, 1954, 3. On the habit of drinking Coke, see Goldar, Buenos Aires, 24.
25. “Recibió el saludo de un grupo de estudiantes de todo el país,” La Razón, March 4, 1954, 3.
26. Bianchi, Catolicismo y Peronismo, 149–67; Caimari, Perón y la Iglesia Católica, 292–310.
27. “Los estudiantes somos y seremos libres” and “El Tero No. 44,” in Lafiandra, Los panfletos, 173–74, 185.
28. “¡Estudiante!,” in Lafiandra, Los panfletos,, 235–36.
29. “La doctrina peronista ante la reacción político clerical,” Mundo Peronista No. 76, November 15, 1954, 10–11; “¿Qué está haciendo Perón con la UES?,” in Lafiandra, Los panfletos, 181.
30. Marcilese, 30 días en la UES, 13–15, 27, 61, 144–48.
31. The president was Dr. Carolina Tobar García, a renowned childhood psychiatrist, and the three secretaries were Gilda Lamarque, who would become one of the organizers of the School of Education at the UBA, Carmen Aguirre de Victoria—her husband, Marcos, was appointed as the first chair of the Psychology Department at the UBA—and Delfina de Ghioldi, the wife of Américo Ghioldi, a Socialist Party leader. See Casos de la Segunda Tiranía: La UES, 6.
32. Libro Negro de la Segunda Tiranía, 137, 9.
33. Comisión Provincial por la Memoria (Area Archivo), Public Interview with former Conintes prisoners (1955–63), La Plata, May 30, 2008. I thank Laura Elhrich for sharing this source with me.
34. Poder Ejecutivo Nacional, “Decreto No. 7625: Crease la materia ‘Educación Democrática,’” Boletín Oficial, December 30, 1955, 6, 36–43.
35. For the emergence of a Peronist Youth identity and militancy in the late 1950s, see especially Elhrich, Rebeldes, intransigentes y duros, Chapter 3.
36. The description and calculation is based on La Razón, from January 1, 1958, to December 30, 1961. La Razón used to transcribe the contents of those events, and it sold an average of 450,000 copies a day, according to the Instituto Verificador de Circulaciones, Diarios, 1960, 1965, 1970.
37. Germani, Política y sociedad, 233–34; on the work of Germani and his idea of crisis, see Blanco, Razón y modernidad, 83–186.
38. Germani, Política y sociedad, 262–64.
39. Plotkin, Freud in the Pampas, 84–85.
40. “Psicología Evolutiva II—Programa 1960,” Box 724, File 3756/59 and “Telma Reca de Acosta, 1961,” Box 725, File 12965, FYL; Fendrik, Psicoanalistas de niños, 3: 61–109.
41. In 1964, the center offered psychological treatments to 1,250 adolescents—a category defining boys and girls between thirteen and twenty-two years old. See Reca, Temas de psiquiatría y psicología, 489.
42. Plotkin, Freud in the Pampas, 108–14; Cosse, “Argentine Mothers and Fathers,” 180–202.
43. Interview with Dr. Eva Giberti. To explain her success, Giberti added that she came as a novelty herself: “a young female professional, mother of a little boy, divorced and re-married with a man who was 25 years older than I was . . . I was the change myself.”
44. “El hijo no es un hombre que está solo y espera,” La Razón, May 22, 1957, 7; “El mundo de la adolescencia”, La Razón, December 22, 1959, 13; “Actitudes del joven frente a la vida,” Nuestros Hijos No. 68, September 1960, 8–10; “¿Es su hijo normal?,” Leoplán No. 656, December 6, 1961, 11.
45. “Los adolescentes actuales y el amor de siempre,” Vosotras No. 1271, April 14, 1960, 10–11; “La moderna dinámica familiar,” La Razón, September 9, 1961, 15; “Los años difíciles,” La Razón, March 21, 1962, 7; “Papá es un hombre antiguo,” La Razón, June 16, 1963, 11.
46. Medovoi, Rebels, 30.
47. On the ways sociologists in the 1950s and 1960s engaged with the study of youth under the lens of “subculture” and “deviancy” theories, see Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics; Piccone-Stella, La prima generazione; and J. Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage, 127–42.
48. Bianchi, Catolicismo y peronismo, 164–6.
49. “Carta de la familia,” Boletín AICA No. 66, September 13, 1957, 7–8.
50. “El joven vive una etapa intermedia, se refugia en la tierra de nadie y espera que los padres lo ayuden a vivir,” La Razón, June 17, 1958, 13; “¿Qué pasa con la juventud?,” La Razón, July 18, 1959, 7; “Academia del amor,” La Razón, November 11, 1959, 11; “Dimensión de la juventud de hoy,” Nuestros hijos No. 59, December 1959, 13–15.
51. “Apertura del Congreso Mariano,” Boletín AICA No. 230, November 5, 1960, 1–5.
52. Barbanti, “Cultura cattolica, lutta anticomunista,” 173–90.
53. Actas de la Escuela para Padres No. 1, November 2, 1963, n.p., Escuela para Padres File, LMF; Nuestra Escuela para Padres, Comité Central File, LMF.
54. Actas de la Escuela para Padres Nos. 2 and 3, May 14, 1964 and August 29, 1964, n.p., Escuela para Padres File, LMF.
55. Loaeza, “Mexico in the Fifties,” 138–60; McGee Deutsch, “Christians, Homemakers, and Transgressors.”
56. Organización y propósitos, 1962, Comité Central File, LMF.
57. Altamirano, Bajo el signo de las masas, 50–67.
58. Frondizi, Mensajes presidenciales, 1: 18, 31.
59. Consejo Nacional de Protección de Menores: Antecedentes, Ley Orgánica y su reglamentación (Buenos Aires: Poder Ejecutivo Nacional, 1960), 24, 31, 33. For a history of the institutional developments prior to the Consejo Nacional, see Guy, Women Build the Welfare State, 83–119.
60. For the notion of “permissive moment,” see Weeks, Sex, Politics, and Society, 190–210.
61. Collins, Modern Love, 134–60; Herzog, Sex after Fascism, 153–60.
62. Jáuregui, La homosexualidad en la Argentina, 163–67; Sebreli, Escritos sobre escritos, 263–65.
63. “Se pide una medida nacional contra las publicaciones inmorales,” Boletín AICA No. 99, May 25, 1958, 3; “La campaña de moralización,” Boletín AICA No. 176, October 23, 1959, 2; “Manifiesto de la juventud de Acción Católica,” Boletín AICA No. 189, January 1, 1960, 8–9; Actas del Consejo Nacional de Menores 2, No. 9, February 25, 1959, 239–40; ibid., No. 30, August 12, 1959, 76–77; ibid., No. 32, August 26, 1959, 26–28; ibid., No. 46, February 26, 1960, 248–51, CNNAF.
64. “El problema de la televisión,” La Razón, June 8, 1962; “Conclusiones del Primer Seminario sobre la Función Social de la TV,” Criterio No. 1491, January 13, 1966, 64.
65. “Reglamentación del decreto ley 15460/57,” La Nación, November 17, 1965, 2.
66. Actas del Consejo Nacional de Protección de Menores 1, No. 53, June 6, 1962, 259–61; No. 55, June 27, 1962, 288–90, CNNAF.
67. Poder Ejecutivo Nacional, “Decreto 8205: Creación del Consejo Nacional Honorario de Calificación Cinematorgráfica,” Boletín Oficial, October 3, 1963, 3.
68. I quote from the notifications that the board sent to distributors, reproduced in Goti Aguilar, La censura en el cine, 81, 135.
69. “Coeducación,” Boletín de Informaciones de la Universidad de Buenos Aires No. 1, May 1958, 7–8.
70. “La coeducación reclama diálogo y experimentación,” La Razón, June 10, 1958, 7. See also “Encíclica Divinis Illius Magistri,” Revista Eclesiástica Argentina No. 2, April–May 1958, 60.
71. “El Ministro MacKay recibe a los padres de familia,” La Nación, June 23, 1958, 6.
72. “En la Escuela Normal No. 4,” Boletín AICA No. 176, October 23, 1959, 2; “Comunismo en la educación: Liceo 3,” Boletín AICA No. 178, November 3, 1959, 4.
73. “Informe del estado actual de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras relacionado con la Escuela Normal No. 4,” Box 817, Archivos y Colecciones Particulares, AAF-BN.
74. Eva Giberti, “Las opiniones de los hijos,” La Razón, November 21, 1960, 13. She came back to the issue in “Cambios en la dinámica familiar,” La Razón, March 5, 1963, 11.
75. The previous calculation is based on La Razón, from January 1, 1962, to December 31, 1965. From 1963 to 1966, Giberti published an average of one and a half columns per week, whereas before she had published three. When I asked her why her column was discontinued, she answered that she did not know exactly but “all in all, the task was done.” Interview with Eva Giberti.
76. Aguilar, “La generación del 60,” 82–98; Castagna, “La generación del 60”; Feldman, La generación del sesenta.
77. Kuhn (1934–1987) narrated his cinematographic interests and influences—including, largely, Antonioni—in several interviews compiled in Peña, 60/90 Generaciones, 160–63.
78. Los jóvenes viejos.