Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography

by Sanyal, Sanjeev

  Whatever the exact circumstances of its entry, once the lion became a familiar animal in the subcontinent, it was quickly appropriated by Indian culture. As in the Middle East, it became the symbol of royal power and bravery. The word for ‘throne’ in Sanskrit and many Indian languages is ‘singhasana’ which literally means ‘seat of the lion’. Similarly, Durga, the Hindu goddess of strength and war, is usually depicted as standing on a lion while slaying a demon. The Mahabharata repeatedly invokes the image of a lion to convey strength and vigour. To this day, communities that are proud of their martial tradition, such as Rajputs and Sikhs, commonly use Singh (meaning lion) as their surname

  Interestingly, the lion plays an important role in the Mahavamsa, a Pali epic, that is the foundation myth of the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa, the Sinhalese people are the descendants of Prince Vijaya and his followers who sailed down to Sri Lanka in the sixth century BC from what is now Orissa and West Bengal. The story tells us that Prince Vijaya was the son of a lion and a human princess, which is why the majority population of Sri Lanka call themselves the Sinhala—or the lion people—and the country’s national flag features a stylized lion holding a sword. Equally significant is the fact that the Tamil rebels of northern Sri Lanka chose to call themselves the ‘Tigers’. The ancient rivalry between the two big cats remains embedded in cultural memory even as the animals themselves face extinction.

  Sadly, there are now a mere 411 Asiatic lions left in the wild. 10 The Gir National Park in Gujarat is their last refuge. Less than two hundred years ago, this magnificent beast could be found around Delhi and were probably common in the Aravalli ridges south of Gurgaon. Now eight-lane highways roar though the lion’s erstwhile lair. The last reported sighting of a lion in Iran was in 1942. In Iraq, the magnificent Assyrian friezes are all that remain of a beast last sighted in 1917. 11

  THE LATE IRON AGE

  By the late Iron Age (eighth to fifth century BC), we find that a number of urban clusters are reaching scales that are comparable to the Harappan cities. Kausambi, near today’s Allahabad, is said to have been founded after the king of Hastinapur, a descendant of the Pandavas, who was forced by a devastating flood to shift his capital further east. Spread over an area of 150-200 hectares, Kausambi had a population of around 36,000 people at its height. 12 Other major cities like Rajagir and Sravasti were on a similar scale. These are comparable to Mohenjodaro, the largest of the Harappan sites, which had a population of around 40,000. It is difficult to estimate the total population of the subcontinent at this time but it was probably in the range of 30 million.

  The late Iron Age towns were fortified with moats and ramparts. Wood and mud-bricks were the common building material but the Harappan technology of kiln-fired bricks had not been forgotten. Kausambi, for instance, shows extensive use of kiln-fired bricks. The towns also have drains, soakage pits and other urban amenities, albeit of a design that is different from the Indus Valley era. However, the courtyard continues to be the basic prototype for houses while streets were systematically levelled to allow wheeled traffic.

  Merchant boats would have plied the Ganga, especially between Kausambi, Kashi and Pataliputra (modern Patna). There were ocean-going ships as well. The legend of prince Vijaya in the Mahavamsa suggests coastal trade links along the Bay of Bengal extending from Bengal to Sri Lanka. Both the Uttara Path and the Dakshina Path would have been busy highways, with the people plying these trade routes carrying not just goods but also ideas, because this was also a time of great intellectual expansion. The philosophies of the Upanishads, Mahavira and Gautam Buddha are all products of this milieu.

  The Buddha was born in Kapilavastu (on the Indo–Nepal border) but he attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, just south of the old Magadhan capital of Rajgir. However, he did not deliver his first sermon in Bodh Gaya, the nearby towns and villages or even in the royal capital of Rajgir. Instead, he headed west to Varanasi (also called Kashi). Why did he go all the way to Varanasi to spread his message?

  According to historian Vidula Jayaswal, this was a natural choice since Varanasi was an important place for the exchange of both goods and ideas because it stood at the crossroads between the Uttara Path and a highway that came down from the Himalayas and then continued south as the Dakshina Path. In some ways, this remains true to this day as the east–west National Highway 2 meets the north–south National Highway 7 at Varanasi. The latter then runs all the way down to the southern tip of India. The alignment of the modern north–south highway runs somewhat east of the ancient trade route but it is amazing how the logic of India’s transport system has remained the same. Even when the British built the railways in the nineteenth century, they used Mughalsarai—just outside Varanasi—as the nerve-centre of the railway network.

  When the Buddha went there in the sixth century BC, Varanasi was already a large urban settlement built on the Ganga. The city’s name is derived from the fact that it was built between where the Varuna and the Asi streams flow into the sacred river. The Varuna is still a discernible stream but, sadly, the Asi has been reduced to a polluted municipal drain.

  It was in a deer park at Sarnath, just outside the city, that the Buddha delivered his first sermon. As an important crossroads the place was already an established hub of commercial and intellectual activity by this time, which is precisely what attracted him to it. Tourists visiting the Buddhist archaeological site at Sarnath often do not realize that the spot is sacred to other religious traditions too. Just outside, the visitor will see a large Jain temple dedicated to the eleventh ‘tirthankara’. Similarly, the archaeological museum next door contains many idols and artifacts of the Brahminical tradition.

  The place is still sacred to the devotees of Shiva. In fact, the name Sarnath is a short form for Saranganath (meaning ‘Lord of the Deer’) which is another name for Shiva. This should not be surprising as Varanasi has long been, and remains, a very important hub for Hindus of the Shaivite tradition. It may explain why the Buddha found a park with sacred deer at this place. Even today, there is a temple dedicated to Saranganath, less than a kilometre from the archaeological site. It is a small village temple that almost no tourist visits and is a peaceful place to linger in.

  The intellectual innovations of the age were not limited to religious philosophy. For instance, the period also witnesses the systematization of Ayurveda, India’s traditional medical system. A compendium compiled by Sushruta, who also lived near Varanasi, contains a long list of sophisticated surgical instruments and procedures. 13 There are detailed descriptions of plastic surgery, ophthalmic couching (dislodging of the lens of the eye), perineal lithotomy (cutting for bladder stones), the removal of arrows and splinters and the dissection of dead bodies for the study of anatomy. 14

  Unfortunately, most of this knowledge would be lost in the medieval era. Nevertheless, some techniques survived in isolated pockets and were witnessed by European visitors in the eighteenth century. This includes the famous ‘rhinoplasty’ operation that took place in Pune in March 1793 that would change the course of plastic surgery in Europe and the world. Cowasjee was a Maratha (more likely Parsi) bullock-cart driver with the English army during its campaigns against Tipu Sultan of Mysore. He was captured and had his nose and one hand cut off. After a year without a nose, he and four others submitted themselves to an Indian surgeon who used skin from their foreheads to repair the noses. We know little about the surgeon but two senior British surgeons from Bombay Presidency witnessed this operation and sent back detailed descriptions and diagrams. The publication in Europe in 1816 of their account would give birth to modern plastic surgery.

  Of course, all the cultural and intellectual activity of this period was not limited to the Gangetic heartland. Take for example Panini, the famous grammarian, who standardized the Sanskrit language during the fifth century BC. He is said to have been born in Gandhara (eastern Afghanistan) and to have lived in Taxila (near modern Islamabad). This part of the subcontinent
was about to witness the first attempt by a European power to conquer India.

  THE EMPIRE OF THE LION

  The world of small tribal kingdoms described above went through a major shift in the third and fourth century BC. This happened almost simultaneously across the ancient world. It was not so much a change in technology as a shift in political ideology and ambition. Within a couple of generations, we see the idea of empire inspire a series of remarkable leaders around the world, whose conquests would redefine the political geography of the world.

  The first of the empire-builders was Cyrus the Great of Persia in the sixth century BC, but it is only in the fourth century that we begin to see empire-building on a totally different scale. In China, King Hui of Qin began a cycle of conquest around 330 BC that would culminate in the first empire under Shi Huangdi a century later. At around the same time, Alexander the Great would take control of Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Bactria and Persia. Then in the winter of 327-326 BC he marched into India. Here he built an alliance with Ambhi, the king of Taxila. Together they defeated Porus on the banks of the Jhelum. It is possible that the name Porus refers to the Puru tribe that had inhabited the area since the Rig Vedic times.

  Alexander wanted to push on eastwards but his troops were tired after years on the march. Also, there were stories about a large Magadhan army that would be mobilized against them in the Gangetic plains. With his army in virtual mutiny, Alexander was forced to turn back. However, he did not go back the way he had come but fatefully chose to sail down the Indus under the mistaken belief that the Indus constituted the upper reaches of the Nile. The Macedonians thought that if they just sailed down the Indus, they would end up in the Mediterranean! They had reached this conclusion because of the apparent similarities between the flora and fauna of India and those of the upper reaches of the Nile (Arrian mentions crocodiles and a certain variety of beans). As Alexander’s army sailed down the Indus, it defeated many tribes and brutally destroyed several settlements. There is also a fascinating account of how a local chieftain entertained Alexander with a gladiatorial match between a lion and ferocious dogs (the Indians claimed that the dogs had been bred from tigresses). 15

  On reaching the sea, the Macedonians discovered their mistake. They were then forced to march along the dry Makran and Persian Gulf coast. This was the same route that early humans had used when they migrated east to the subcontinent. However, climatic conditions and the coastline had dramatically changed. Without proper maps, provisions and water, the desert exacted a terrible toll. Soldiers and pack animals died in large numbers from hunger and thirst. Much of the plunder accumulated over years of campaigning had to be abandoned for lack of horses and men. Alexander’s army arrived back in Babylon undefeated but decimated. The conqueror himself died soon afterwards, possibly poisoned by followers who no longer believed in his leadership. Alexander’s empire was divided up amongst his generals and his young son was murdered. The lack of geographical knowledge proved deadlier than the sword. As we shall see, when Europeans attempted to take control of India two millennia later, they would take great care to map it.

  Alexander’s invasion is not mentioned directly in Indian texts but the Macedonians have left us detailed accounts of their adventures. 16 Some of them includes fantastical tales about giant ants that were used to dig for gold. However, for the most part, their observations were accurate. Nearchus, Alexander’s admiral, tells us that Indians wore clothes made from white cotton. The lower garment reached below the knee, halfway to the ankles. The upper garment was thrown over the shoulder and a turban was worn on the head. Nearchus was describing the dhoti and angavastra—clothes that have been worn since Vedic times and continue to be worn even today. He goes on to say that wealthy Indians wore ivory earrings and used parasols against the sun. They also wore leather sandals with elaborate trimmings and thick soles to make themselves look taller!

  Although Alexander’s invasion did not make much of a dent in the Indian heartland, it did trigger a chain of events that led to the founding of India’s first great empire, that of the Mauryas. The empire was created by two extraordinary characters: Chanakya (also called Kautilya 17 ) and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya. The Persian, Chinese and Macedonian Greek empires were created by princes and warriors. In contrast, Chanakya was a professor of Political Economy in Taxila. When Alexander entered into an alliance with the king of Taxila, the Brahmins of the city opposed this. Plutarch tells us that Alexander had several of them hanged to death. 18

  According to legend, Chanakya then travelled east to Pataliputra (modern Patna), capital of the powerful kingdom of Magadh to ask for help against the Greeks. However, he was insulted and thrown out by the king of the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya decided to return to Taxila to plot his revenge. On the way he met a boy called Chandragupta Maurya. There are some interesting tales—impossible to verify—about how they met. Chanakya took the boy back with him and began to train him for future kingship. He also wrote the Arthashastra (Treatise on Prosperity), a detailed manual on how to run the future empire.

  When Alexander died, there was a power vacuum in northwest India. Chanakya and his protégé used the opportunity to put together a band of rebels. However, their initial efforts at unseating the Nanda king of Magadh appear to have failed. There is a legend that tells of how Chandragupta had to flee into the forests to escape the Nanda king. Overcome with fatigue he collapsed and fell into a deep slumber. However, a lion appeared and licked him clean. Then it stood guard till the future king awoke. When Chandragupta realized what had happened, he saw it as a good omen and renewed his efforts to unseat the Nandas. The story may have been spread by later Mauryan propagandists but, yet again, it emphasizes the symbolic importance of the lion.

  After several years of effort, Chanakya managed to cobble together a large army, possibly with the help of the hill tribes of Himachal. He and Chandragupta slowly took control of the north-west of the country. Then they steadily encroached into the Gangetic plains. Around 321 BC, they defeated the Nanda king of Magadh and emerged as the paramount power in the subcontinent. Astonishingly, Chanakya did not take the throne for himself but crowned his pupil. Then they spent over a decade establishing control over central India.

  By around 305 BC, Chandragupta felt confident enough to directly confront the Macedonians. One of Alexander’s most talented generals, Seleucus Nikator, was in control of the conqueror’s Asian domains, including Persia and Central Asia. He also laid claim to the Indian territories conquered by Alexander. However, judging from the terms of a treaty between the two in 303 BC, the Mauryan army decisively won the war. Chandragupta gained control over Balochistan and Afghanistan. Seleucus also gave his daughter in marriage to a Mauryan prince, perhaps Chandragupta himself.

  For three generations, the Mauyran empire would cover the whole subcontinent from the edge of eastern Iran to what is now Bangladesh. Only the southernmost tip of India would remain outside its direct control. At its height, it was the largest and most populous empire in the world, dwarfing both Alexander’s domains and those of Shi Huangdi in China. Furthermore, unlike the empires of Alexander and the first Chinese empire, the Mauyran empire lasted at least three generations as a complete unit.

  Yet, both Chanakya and Chandragupta were very unlike the other two empire-builders. Chanakya was happy to remain a minister and, according to one version, may have gone back to teaching in Taxila once the empire had been stabilized. 19 In 297 BC, Chandragupta placed his son Bindusara on the throne, gave up all worldly possessions and became a Jain monk. He took the Dakshina Path and travelled down to Sravana Belagola (in Karnataka) and, according to Jain tradition, starved himself to death to cleanse his soul.

  The hill on which he spent his last days meditating and fasting is still called Chandragiri in his honour.

  The renunciation of power remains a powerful theme in later Indian history. When India became independent in 1947, Mahatma Gandhi refused all positions of power and made way for his prot
égé Jawaharlal Nehru to become modern India’s first prime minister. Civilizations have long memories, both conscious and sub-conscious, and the legendary deeds of ancient heroes can echo down the centuries. We see this in China too where Mao Zedong liked to have himself compared to Qin Shi Huangdi.

  The second Mauryan emperor Bindusara ruled from 297 to 272 BC. His reign appears to have been a period of relative calm and consolidation. We have records of how the Mauryan emperor exchanged ambassadors and trade delegations with Alexander’s successors in the Middle East. There is a tale that the second emperor, Bindusara, asked Antiochus of Syria for figs, wine and a Greek teacher of rhetoric. Antiochus sent the figs and the wine but refused the last request on grounds that Greek law did not permit the sale of scholars! 20

  There appears to have been a succession struggle on Bindusara’s death. The winner of the fratricidal struggle was Ashoka who was crowned in 268 BC. He was not his father’s chosen successor but would rule the empire for forty years. In 260 BC, Ashoka would expand the empire for one last time to include Kalinga (roughly modern Orissa). He now ruled the whole subcontinent except for the small kingdoms of the extreme south with whom he had friendly relations. They are mentioned by name: Chola, Pandya, Keralaputra and Satiyaputra. Note the longevity of the names. The Cholas would remain a powerful clan for the next one and half millennia and would head a powerful empire of their own in the tenth and eleventh century AD. We will revisit them in a later chapter. The name of the Keralaputras has proven even more persistent, and the state at the south-western tip of the Indian peninsula is today called Kerala in their memory.

  OF IMPERIAL PILLARS AND EDICTS

  Ashoka is the first Indian monarch who has left us artifacts that indisputably belong to his reign. To be absolutely accurate, the name Ashoka does not appear on any major edict inscription. The edicts were issued by a king who called himself ‘Beloved of the Gods’, Piyadassi. However, there is strong circumstantial evidence that link Piyadassi to Buddhist legends about a great king called Ashoka. The link was discovered from dynastic lists in the Puranas, Hindu religious texts, that describe a king called Ashoka as Chandragupta’s grandson.