Belisarius: The Last Roman General

by Hughes, Ian

  Buzes Fought in the Battle of Dara but missed Callinicum due to illness. After 540 shared command in the east with Belisarius until in 542 he and Belisarius were accused of attempting to replace Justinian (who had caught the plague) without reference to Theodora. Remained in prison for two years and four months. Later served as magister utriusque militum in the east.

  Constantinianus Sent by Justinian to defend Salona in Illyricum, took control of Dalmatia and Illyricum and defended it against Gothic attack. His presence forced the Goths to fight a war on at least two fronts.

  Constantinus General serving under Belisarius in Italy, showed himself a capable commander and was in charge of the Porta Flaminia during the siege. He was unable to control his troops during the Battle of Rome and the ensuing Gothic counter-attack resulted in his defeat. Alleged to have stolen two daggers from a native Italian, contrary to Belisarius’ policy; he refused to surrender them and, in fear of his life, attempted to stab Belisarius. He was arrested and executed, a deed that Procopius claims was the only stain on Belisarius’ reputation.

  Cyprian Served under Belisarius in Italy. Left behind in Italy after Belisarius’ recall, he was presumably one of the commanders who failed to act as Gothic power revived. In 545 he refused to surrender Perugia to Totila and was murdered by one of his own guards, who had been bribed by Totila.

  Dorotheus The magister militum per Armenian. Twice defeated the Persians in 530, and again in 531, before driving a Sabir Hun attack back through the Caucasus. In 533 was sent under Belisarius to attack the Vandals. His death in Sicily caused mourning throughout the army.

  Ebrimuth Commander of the Gothic forces in South Italy. Surrendered to Belisarius on his arrival.

  Eraric Made king of the Goths in 541, he was assassinated after a rule of five months.

  Gelimer King of the Vandals; usurped the throne from Hilderic after defeating the Moors and gaining an alliance with them. Facing the Byzantine assault under Belisarius, he was defeated at Ad Decimum, then rallied the surviving Goths only to lose again at Tricamerum. Was taken captive to Constantinople and made obeisance to Justinian before retiring to estates in Galatia.

  Germanus Nephew or cousin of Justinian, he was a capable general who was given irregular commands within the empire, for example to deal with the African mutiny. Following the Gothic recovery after the final departure of Belisarius, he married Witigis’ widow Matasuintha before making preparations for the invasion. He died of an illness before the attack could begin.

  Godas A (Gothic) slave of King Gelimer who was put in command of Sardinia. Revolted and appealed to Justinian for aid. Killed by Tzazon before the aid could arrive.

  Herodian Served under Belisarius in Italy. After serving loyally throughout the campaign, he surrendered Spolitium to Totila in 545 – allegedly in fear of reprisals from Belisarius.

  Hilderic King of the Vandals, deposed by Gelimer and killed by Ammatus.

  Ildibadus Made king of the Goths in 540 after the defeat and capture of Witigis, he offered the crown to Belisarius. After a promising start, he fell out with Uraias, who he then murdered. He was then killed in turn by one of his own bodyguards.

  Ildiger Son-in-law of Antonina, wife of Belisarius, travelled to Africa with Belisarius but stayed behind when Belisarius was recalled. Took part in the Battle of Scala Veterae before joining Belisarius in Italy, where, during the siege of Rome, he defeated a Gothic assault on the Porta Pinciana. Accompanied Belisarius on his recall to Constantinople.

  Isaac Brother of Narses and Aratius. When they renounced Persia and joined Justinian, he negotiated the surrender of Bolum – a fortress he was commanding – to the Byzantines. He joined Belisarius for his second campaign in Italy. Left to guard Portus, he abandoned his post and attacked a nearby Gothic camp. In the ensuing fight he was captured and later executed by Totila.

  John the Armenian An Armenian, he was sent ahead of the main force to scout prior to the battle of Ad Decimum. Later, he was dispatched with the cavalry and appears to have been in control of the deployment and possibly of the strategy used during the Battle of Tricamerum. Ordered to pursue Gelimer, he was on the verge of capturing the Vandal king when he died after being accidentally shot by one of his own men

  John the Cappadocian Promoted by Justinian, he earned the hatred of the citizens of Constantinople, who demanded his removal during the Nika Riots. Reinstated, he continued in power until his enemy Theodora manufactured a plot against Justinian in which he was implicated. Forced into exile, he was recalled by Justinian after the death of Theodora, although not given the same power as previously.

  John the Glutton One of the officers of Belisarius’ bodyguard, he served under Belisarius in Italy and went with him to the east. In 541 he was sent with Arethas and Trajan on a probe into Persia. Tricked by Arethas, he returned to Byzantine territory with much booty without orders from Belisarius. In 542 he was one of the men who accused Belisarius of complicity in the refusal to accept a candidate for emperor chosen in Constantinople (ie by Theodora) as Justinian had contracted the plague. He later took part in Narses’ expedition against the Goths.

  John nephew of Vitalianus A close friend of Narses the eunuch, he was sent to reinforce Belisarius in Italy in 537. Used extensively by Belisarius during and after the siege of Rome, he was sent to garrison Ariminum but later refused to leave despite orders from Belisarius after the arrival in Italy of Narses. The army was forced to relieve the siege and John thanked Narses, rather than Belisarius or Ildiger (who was first to the city). After Belisarius had been recalled, John remained in Italy and was criticised for mounting only passive resistance to Totila. The rift between Belisarius and John was never healed and he later refused to follow Belisarius’ orders in Belisarius’ second campaign in Italy. Later, he accompanied Narses on his successful expedition against the Goths.

  Justin Byzantine Emperor (518-527).

  Justinian Byzantine Emperor (527-565).

  Kavadh Sasanid Persian King (531-579).

  Khusrow Nicknamed Anushirvan (The Immortal Soul), Sasanid Persian King (531-579).

  Marcellus High-ranking officer who first served with Belisarius in Africa, fighting at the Battles of Ad Decimum and Tricamerum. He was killed along with Cyril by Stotzas, during the African mutiny.

  Martinus 1 One of the commanders of foederati that served in Africa, he took part in the campaign alongside Belisarius. After victory he remained in Africa during the mutiny before being recalled and sent to Italy with reinforcements for Belisarius, where he took part in the Battle of Rome. He then took an active part in the conquest of Italy, in the later stages being paired with John nephew of Vitalian – possibly in an attempt to control John, who was never comfortable following Belisarius’ orders. Thanks to his loyalty and military ability, after Belisarius was stripped of his rank in 542, Martinus was made magister militum per Onentem, fighting Khusrow in the east. He had varying fortunes but his final victory (allegedly over a 60,000-strong Persian army) helped secure the Peace Treaty of 560/561.

  Matasuintha Daughter of Amalasuintha and granddaughter of Theoderic the Great, after seizing the Gothic crown in 536, Witigis married her in an attempt to fully legitimise his rule. After his defeat, she was married to Germanus prior to his attempt to conquer Italy, but became a widow upon his premature death.

  Mundus Mundus was related to the Gepid noble families. In 529, after service with the Goths under Theoderic the Great, he offered to serve Justinian and was appointed magister militum per Illyricum. He showed himself a capable general and his presence deterred barbarian attacks across the frontier. During the Nika Riots he was by chance in Constantinople and, along with Belisarius, took part in the slaughter in the Hippodrome which ended the rebellion. In 535 he invaded Dalmatia – then held by the Goths – defeated them and took Salona. In the following year, a Gothic force invaded Dalmatia and, in a battle near Salona, Mundus’ son Mauricius was killed. Infuriated by the loss of his son, Mundus defeated the Goths but was himself killed. H
is death resulted in renewed barbarian attacks across the Danube.

  Narses the Eunuch An Armenian, he rose high in power during the reigns of Justin and Justinian. Sent to Italy with reinforcements for Belisarius, he was convinced by others that he was better suited to command. Frictions with Belisarius led to Narses’ recall. He was later appointed to lead the final assault upon Gothic Italy, following Belisarius’ recall to Constantinople.

  Narses An Armenian, brother of Aratius and Isaac. With Aratius defeated Belisarius in an unnamed battle in the east before defecting to the Byzantines and serving alongside Belisarius.

  Photius Son of Antonina and stepson of Belisarius, he gave his loyalty to Belisarius rather than his mother. Accompanying Belisarius and Antonina in the invasion of Italy, he was aware of the affair between Antonina and Theodosius. Having reported the affair to Belisarius, he arrested Theodosius and confiscated his money. However Theodora had Photius arrested and tortured to reveal Theodosius’ whereabouts. Photius escaped from Constantinople and lived the rest of his life as a monk in Jerusalem.

  Pitzas A Goth, given control of western Samnium – possibly by Witigis. Prior to Belisarius’ invasion, he surrendered to Belisarius and was given a few troops with which to maintain control of the region for the empire.

  Principius A bucellanus of Belisarius. Along with Tarmatus he requested permission to lead the infantry at the Battle of Rome, as Belisarius had decided not to allow them to enter the battle. Following the rout of the cavalry, the majority of the infantry also fled but a core of infantry around Principius and Tarmatus held firm and by their sacrifice enabled the cavalry to escape. Principius and Tarmatus both died.

  Procopius A native of Caesarea in Palestine, he died circa 565. Procopius was Belisarius’ assessor (legal advisor) and private secretary. He wrote an account of the wars, much of which he witnessed first hand.

  Pudentius A citizen of Tripoli in Africa, he organised a rebellion against Vandal rule prior to Belisarius’ invasion of Africa.

  Solomon Belisarius’ domesticus, he fought at Ad Decimum and Tricamerum before being given the majority of Belisarius’ comitatus and left in Africa to crush the Moorish uprising. In his first battle against the Moors he dismounted his cavalry in order to attack the enemy, who had surrounded themselves with camels to frighten the Byzantine horses. In the second, he managed to manoeuvre troops around the rear of the Moors’ camp and so caused panic – according to Procopius, the Moors lost 50,000 casualties. Unable to prevent the troops from mutiny, he was nevertheless held in such awe that the mutinous troops could not bring themselves to assassinate him. After Belisarius’ had returned and dispersed the rebels, Solomon retained control until the arrival of Germanus, who finally crushed the mutiny.

  Sittas Roman general, in 528 appointed first magister militum per Armemam, led the first campaigns in which Belisarius was given high command. Defeated, he continued to serve in the east until killed in battle in 539.

  Stotzas One of Martinus’ comitatus, he was elected leader of the African mutiny following Belisarius’ recall from the province. Laid siege to Carthage but at news of Belisarius’ arrival he broke camp and fled.

  Tarmatus A bucellanus of Belisarius, along with Principius he requested permission to lead the infantry at the Battle of Rome, as Belisarius had decided not to allow them to enter the battle. Following the rout of the cavalry, the majority of the infantry also fled but a core of infantry around Principius and Tarmatus held firm and by their sacrifice enabled the cavalry to escape. Principius and Tarmatus both died.

  Theodahad Nephew of Theoderic the Great, after the death of Athalaric in 534 Amalasuintha, in an attempt to maintain control, asked him to be the next king but to allow her to maintain her power. Agreeing to her conditions, he was crowned king but he ignored their agreement and had her imprisoned and killed. His actions now determined Justinian on invading Italy. Following Belisarius’ successes early in the campaign, and the capture of Naples, the Goths turned against Theodahad, elected Witigis, and Theodahad was killed.

  Theoderic the Great King of the Goths and Italians (493-526).

  Theodorus the General and astute politician, he was elected leader of the African mutineers in Carthage but managed to persuade Solomon, Martinus and Procopius that he had had no choice in the matter and arranged for their escape to Sicily. He refused to surrender the city to Stotzas prior to Belisarius’ return. Along with Ildiger, he was left in command of Carthage when Belisarius returned to Sicily.

  Theodosius Adopted son of Belisarius and Antonina. Alleged to have been having an affair with his (adoptive) mother throughout the African campaign, in Sicily he was betrayed to Belisarius, who ordered his death. Theodosius fled to Ephesus before Antonina convinced Belisarius of his innocence and he was told to return. However, he refused until Photius (Antonina’s son) was no longer in the vicinity. Worried by Antonina’s outrageous displays of affection, he again fled to Ephesus. When Belisarius left for the east, Theodosius returned but Photius informed Belisarius, who ordered Photius to kill him. He was only arrested, and later Theodora tortured Photius to learn of his whereabouts. Returned to Antonina, shortly afterwards contracted dysentery and died.

  Tzazon Brother of Gelimer, he was sent to Sardinia when news of Godas’ rebellion reached Gelimer. Retaking the island, he missed the Battle of Ad Decimum but returned in time for the Battle of Tricamerum, where he was killed.

  Uraias Nephew of Witigis, served faithfully until Witigis was captured by Belisarius. Offered the crown, he refused and instead recommended Ildibadus, who was subsequently crowned. However, shortly after he fell out with Ildibadus and the king had him killed.

  Vigilius Pope (551-555) Allegedly appointed by the order of Theodora, he came into increasing conflict with Justinian over the debate of the ‘Three Chapters’, at the end of which he was banished to an island in the Sea of Marmara.

  Vitalius Magister militum per Illyricum; first served in the Balkans before joining Belisarius in Italy. Later in the campaign he was paired with John nephew of Vitalianus, possibly in an attempt to control John and restrict his tendency to ignore Belisarius’ orders. After Belisarius’ recall, he was the only general credited by Procopius with taking an active role against the Goths. During Belisarius’ second campaign in Italy, an attempt by the Goths to attack him resulted in them suffering extremely high casualties as, in combination with Thurimuth, he trapped the pursuing troops in a series of devastating ambushes.

  Witigis King of the Goths (536-540).

  Select Bibliography

  Although there has been a lot written about Justinian and his reign, there has been surprisingly little about Belisarius himself. Below is a list of books and articles that are relevant to the life of Belisarius. The majority have their own bibliographies for anyone wishing to delve further into the period.

  Primary Sources (by translator)

  Bosworth, C E, The History of al-Tabari: Vol. 5; The Sasamds, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids and the Yemen (Albany, 1999).

  Dennis, G T, Maurice’s Strategikon (Philadelphia, 1984).

  Dennis, G T, Three Byzantine Military Treatises, (Washington DC, 1985).

  Dewing, H B, Procopius: History of the Wars, in 5 volumes (London, 2001).

  Dewing, H B, Procopius: Secret History (Anekdota) (London, 2004).

  Frendo, J D, Agathias: The Histories (Berlin, 1975).

  Jeffreys, E, Jeffreys, M., and Scott, R, The Chronicle of John Malalas: a Translation (Melbourne, 1986).

  Milner, N P, Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science (Liverpool, 1996).

  Mommsen, T, Marcellmus Comes: Additions to the Chronicle (1894), available online at http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinusl.html.

  Thomson, R W, The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos, in 2 volumes (Liverpool, 1999).

  Secondary Sources

  Bishop, M C and Coulston, J C N, Roman Military equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Exeter, 2006).

  Boardman, J, Griffin, J, and Murray
, O, The Oxford History of the Roman World (Oxford, 2001).

  Boss, R Juastinian’s Wars: Belisarius, Narses and the Reconquest of the West (Stockport, 1993).

  Burns, T S, Barbarians within the Gates of Rome, (Bloomington, 1994).

  Bury, J B, ‘History of the Later Roman Empire’ (1958), available online at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/home.html

  Cameron, Averil, Procopius and the Sixth Century (California, 1985).

  Cameron, Averil, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1993).

  Coulston, J C, ‘Later Roman Armour 3rd-6th Centuries’, in Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies, 1 (1990), pp. 139-160.

  Farrokh, K, Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (Oxford, 2007).