To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science
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Paul, Saint, 49–50
Pauli, Wolfgang, 261
Paul III, Pope, 48, 153
Paul V, Pope, 183–84
Pecham, John, 129
pendulum, 191, 195–96, 241, 246, 341–42
Pensées (Pascal), 199
periods
of planets, 150, 227
of Jovian moons, 178
Perrin, Jean, 260
Persia, 5, 7, 103–6, 108–11, 116
Peter the Great, czar of Russia, 245
Peucer, Caspar, 158
Peurbach, Georg von, 141
Phaedo (Plato), 10
phase transition, 267
Philip II, king of Macedon, 22
Philolaus, 78, 153
Philo of Alexandria, 62
Philo of Byzantium, 35
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Newton), 227n, 231–47
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 219–20, 224–25
philosophy, 3, 27–28, 101, 106, 112, 141, 146, 179
Philus, Lucius Furius, 71
Phoenicians, 13, 56–57
photographic emulsions, 180
photons, 220, 223, 249, 261–62
Physics (Aristotle), 19, 23–26, 96, 127
physics. See also specific concepts
Arabs and, 110
Aristotle and, 23–29, 115–16, 128, 131
biology and, 266
Galileo and, 179
Greeks and, 19
Kepler and, 170
mathematics and, 20–21, 246
medieval Europe and, 128, 131, 137
modern science and, xiii–xiv, 146, 170
Newton and definition of, 246
physiologi, 12
pi, 39, 294–95
Piaget, Jean, 132
Picard, Jean-Félix, 228n
pions, 82
Pisa, University of, 134, 172, 173, 178, 180
Planck, Max, 248, 261
Planck mass, 268
Planetary Hypotheses (Ptolemy), 94, 107, 149–50
planets and planetary system. See also Earth; Sun; and specific concepts; individual scientists; and planets
ancient mechanical model of, 71–72
apparent brightness and, 86–87, 90, 142–43, 176n–77n
apparent retrograde motion and, 90, 148
Arabs and, 107, 112–14, 117–18
Aristotle and, 78–80, 83–87, 94–98, 131, 142–43
circular orbits and, 91–93, 95, 151
Copernicus and, 90–91, 94–95, 117–18, 142–43, 148–58, 162, 168, 172, 179–80, 182–83, 188, 255
Descartes and, 204, 212
difficulty of understanding, 98
distances of, 89, 94, 142–43, 171n, 240, 364, 365
eccentricity of orbits, 167–68, 168n
elliptical orbits and, 151, 161–69, 172, 255, 323–28
elongations and orbits of inner, 320–21
emergence of correct description of, 188
epicyclic theory of, xv, 303–7
equal-area law and equants and, 323–28
Eudoxus and, 80–84
Galileo and, 72, 172–88, 199, 204, 212
general relativity and, 251–52
gravitation and, 134, 363–64
Greeks and, 45, 48, 53, 77–101, 151, 153–54
homocentric model, 86–87
impetus and, 133–34
instability of, 245n
Kepler and, 161–73, 188, 236–37, 248, 255
Mars as test for theories of, 165n
masses of, technical note on, 363–64
medieval Europe and, 131, 133–34, 137, 142–43
Newton and, 225–31, 236–45, 248–49, 251–52
oblate shape of, 241
order of, 150, 154, 162
path through zodiac, 57
phases of, 142, 154, 237
Ptolemy and, 88–98, 94, 107, 118, 142–43, 149–55, 168, 172, 254–55
Pythagoreans and, 78–79
sidereal periods and, 170–71
size of, 162, 176n–77n, 239–40
sizes of orbits and, 171–72
speed of orbits and, 77–78, 91, 95, 150–51, 168–69, 230, 323
Standard Model and, 249
Tycho, 160, 182, 188
Plato, 8–13, 34, 85, 138, 146
Arabs and, 105, 111, 121
Aristotle vs., 22–23
astronomy and, 19–20, 51, 61, 91, 117, 151, 155, 264
deduction vs. observation and, 132
Francis Bacon and, 202
homework problem, 79–80
Kepler and, 163, 167, 171
magnetism and, 257
mathematics and, 17–20, 203
matter and, 10–13, 111, 274–79
medieval Europe and, 124, 127, 132
religion and, 45, 47, 50
Plato’s Universe (Vlastos), 6n
Pleiades, 55, 176
Plotinus, 47
Plutarch, 70, 153–54
Pneumatics (Philo), 35
poetry, 1, 12–14
Pogson, Norman, 88n
Polaris (North Star), 75
polygon, 275–76, 294–95
polyhedrons, regular, 10–12, 15, 18, 162–64, 171, 274–79
Pope, Alexander, 252–53
precession
of apparent orbit of Sun around Earth, 113–14
of equinoxes, 74–75, 107, 118, 153, 241–42, 244, 248
of perihelia, 241, 244, 250
prediction, 154, 242–43, 265
Priestley, Joseph, 11
Principles of Philosophy (Descartes), 203–4, 212–13
Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 17
prism, 211, 218–20
probability, theory of, 199
Proclus, 51, 97–98
projectiles, thrown objects and, 27, 51, 71, 133, 135, 161, 193–94, 213, 342–46
proportions, theory of, 17
Protestantism, 156–57, 166, 253
protons, 243, 262–64
Prutenic Tables, 158, 166, 172
Ptolemy, Claudius, 48, 51, 79, 330
Arabs and, 105–7, 110, 112–14, 117–18, 141, 160
Aristotelian models vs., 95–99, 106, 112–14, 141–43, 160
chords vs. sines and, 309–11
Copernicus vs., 149–55, 255
Descartes and, 204
Earth’s rotation and, 135
epicycles and, 87, 255, 303–7
equal-angles and equants, 37, 87, 254–55, 324–25
experiment and, 189
Francis Bacon and, 201
Galileo and, 172–73, 179–80, 185
Kepler, 165, 167–68
lunar parallax and, 237n, 307–9
medieval Europe and, 126, 128–29, 141
planetary motion and, 51, 71–74, 87–96, 100, 137, 254–55
refraction and, 37, 79, 137, 330
Tycho and, 159–61, 165
Ptolemy I, 31–32, 35
Ptolemy II, 32
Ptolemy III, 40, 75
Ptolemy IV, 40, 75
Ptolemy XV, 31
pulmonary circulation, 118
Punic War, Second, 39
Pythagoras, 15, 47, 72
Pythagoreans, 15–20, 72, 78–79, 111, 141n, 151, 153–54, 279–82
Pythagorean theorem, 17, 283–84
quadratic equations, 15
quantum chromodynamics, 243
quantum electrodynamics, 180, 263, 268
quantum field theory, 262, 263–64
quantum mechanics, 21, 34, 152, 220, 248–49, 261–65, 268
quarks, 243, 263–65
quaternions, 163
Questiones quandam philosophicae (Newton), 217, 218
Qutb, Sayyid, 123
radiation, 261
radioactivity, 260–62, 264
radio astronomers, 159
radio waves, 259
Ragep, F. J., 374
rainbows, 25, 117, 128, 207–12, 219, 342–56
rational num
bers, 284
real numbers, 163
reductionism, 267–68
reflection, 35–37, 79, 189
Hero’s law of, 37, 208, 210, 289–91, 348
refraction, 37, 79, 189
Arabs and, 110, 117
Descartes and, 208–12
Fermat and, 208
Huygens’ and, 221
Kepler and, 166
law of, 37, 206–10, 221
law of, least-time derivation of, 348–51, 358
law of, tennis ball derivation, 346–48
law of, wave theory derivation of, 356–58
Newton and, 218–19
rainbow and, 342–56
Regiomontanus (Johann Müller), 141, 147
Regulae solvendi sophismata (Heytesbury), 138
Regulus, 74n
Reinhold, Erasmus, 158, 166, 176
religion, science vs., 1, 101
biblical literalism and, 133–36
Copernican system and, 155–57, 170, 182–83
Descartes and, 203
early Christianity and, 48–52
Galileo and, 182–88
Greeks and, 44–48
Islamic world and, 118–23
Kepler and, 170
medieval condemnation of Aristotle and, 127–32
Newton and, 215, 218, 245–46
scientific revolution and, 146
Republic (Plato), 13, 19–20, 61
retina of the eye, 112, 174
retrograde motion of planets, 148
Rheticus, Georg Joachim, 157
Riccioli, Giovanni Battista, 184, 196, 222
Richer, Jean, 239–40
Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science (Crombie), 137
Roman Catholic church, 157, 179, 181
date for Easter, 61
Index of books, 184, 187–88, 190, 213
Roman Inquisition, 157, 181, 181, 184–88
Roman numerals, 107
Rome, ancient, 1, 22, 31–32, 39, 42, 47, 87, 88, 125
decline of science at end of, 48, 50–52, 118
Rømer, Ole, 221–22, 359
Rosen, E., 376, 377
Ross, W. D., 84
Royal Society of London, 217, 219–20, 225–26, 231, 240, 245
Rubaiyat, The (Khayyam), 110, 119
Rudolph II, Holy Roman emperor, 161, 166
Rudolphine Tables, 161, 166, 172
Rushdie, Salman, 113
Rutherford, Ernest, 260
Sagredo, Giovanni Francesco, 186, 190
Salam, Abdus, 123
Salviati, Filippo, 186, 190
Sand Reckoner, The (Archimedes), 68–70, 300–301
Sarton, G., 369
Saturn, 77–78, 83, 85, 89, 94
apparent retrograde motion of, 148
Aristotle and, 83, 85
conjunction of Jupiter and, 159
Copernicus and, 148–49, 151
distance from Sun, 163n
eccentricity of orbit, 167
epicycles and, 303–6
Halley’s comet and, 247
Kepler and, 162, 163n, 171, 236–37
moon of, 195, 363, 364
Newton and, 236–39
orbit length, 78
Ptolemy and, 89, 94, 149, 255
rings of, 195
sidereal period of, 171
Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 169
Scheiner, Christoph, 181
Schrödinger, Erwin, 45, 152, 248–49, 261
Schrödinger equation, 261
Schuster, J. A., 380
Schweber, S.,269
scientific method, xiv, 213–14
scientific revolution, xiv, xvi
aftermath of, 256–68
Copernicus and, 145–58
criticisms of notion of, 145–46
Descartes and, 201, 203–14
experimentation and, 189–200
14th century and revolt vs. Aristotelianism, 28, 132
Francis Bacon and, 200–202, 214
Galileo and, 172–88, 190–94
Huygens and, 194–97
Kepler and, 161–72
location and timing of, 118, 253–55
Newton as climax of, 215–55
16th to 17th century, 40, 145–46
Tycho and, 158–61, 165–66
Scipio Africanus, 17
screws, 37, 38
seasons, 58–60, 81, 107, 152
Seleucus, 72
Seneca, 174
Settle, T. B., 379
sextant, 159
sexual selection, 266n
Shakespeare, William, 46
Shape of the Eclipse, The (al-Haitam), 110
Shapin, Steven, 145, 376, 379, 380, 382
Shiite Muslims, 104, 120
sidereal period, 171
day, 85n
lunar month, 59n, 228
year, 118
Siderius Nuncius (Galileo), 175–78, 181, 338–39
Siger of Brabent, 128
simplicity, 150n, 151–53, 155, 172
Simplicius, 5, 51, 80, 85–87, 90, 96, 104, 186, 190
sine, 107, 206–7, 210, 307
chords and, 309–11
wave, 280–81
Sirius, 55, 88
Smith, George, 93, 238, 269, 373, 379, 381, 382
Snell, Willebrord, 207
Snell’s law, 37, 207, 221, 347–48
Socrates, 9–10, 19–20, 61–62, 121
Solon, 4
solstices, 58, 60, 75, 76n
Sosigenes, 86–87, 142
Soto, Domingo de, 140
sound, 16, 44, 200
harmony and waves of, 279–82
speed of, 24, 236, 242
space and time, 111, 233–34, 251–52
Spain, Islamic, 104–5, 112–14, 116, 123, 126
special theory of relativity, 34, 152, 204n, 251
specific gravity, 39, 41, 108, 232, 293
spectral lines, 262, 359
Spengler, Oswald, xiv
sphere, volume of, 39
spherical geometry, 116
Spica, 74
square roots, 17–18
Squire, J. C., 252–53
Standard Model, 21, 249, 263–65
star catalogs, 73–74, 88
stars, 10, 55–58, 64, 80, 82–84, 107, 115, 160
annual parallax, 70
brightness of, 55, 79, 88, 176–77, 245–46, 265
Copernicus and, 148–49
distance of, 148, 161, 177
Galileo and, 176–78
Kepler and, 164
magnitude of, 88n
static electricity, 257
steam engine, Hero’s, 36, 41
Stoics, 22, 75
Strato, 32–33, 35, 64, 66, 70, 140, 288
string theory, 14, 131
strong forces, 257, 262
suction, 35, 197–98
sulfur, 11, 259
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, 22
Summa Theologica (Aquinas), 128
Sun
Arabs and, 107, 114, 117–18
Aristarchus on distance of, 66–70, 75, 239, 295–301
Aristarchus on planetary orbits around, 70, 72, 85–86, 143
Aristotle and, 84–85
Copernicus and, 59, 86, 90–92, 95, 124, 143, 148–49, 152, 172
diameter of, 83
distance from Earth, 53, 63, 66–68, 83, 90, 94, 148, 239, 240, 267, 295–301, 364
diurnal parallax, 239
Earth’s equatorial bulge and, 153
eclipses of, 63
ecliptic of, through zodiac, 57
epicycles and, 90, 303–7
equinoxes and, 74
Galileo and, 179–83
gravitational field of, 250–52
Greeks and motion of, 10, 47, 53, 55, 57–59, 77, 79–82, 84–86, 88–95, 124, 143
Heraclides on planetary orbits around, 85–86, 89, 124, 134, 153
Kepler and elliptical orbits around, 167–70, 172
Newton
and ratio of masses planets to mass of, 238–39
Ptolemy and, 88–94, 172
Pythagoreans and, 78
rotation of, 183
seasons and, 81
shining of, 245–46, 265
size of, 53, 63, 67–70, 75, 295–301
stationary, church and, vs. Copernicus, 183
time of day and, 58
Tycho and, 160
Sunspot Letters (Galileo), 180–82
sunspots, 181–83, 186
supernova, 159, 166, 173
surface tension, 66
Swerdlow, N. M., 374, 376
Swineshead, Richard, 138
Syene, 75–76. 301–2
Sylvester II, Pope, 126
symmetry, 9, 82
synodic lunar month, 59n
Syracuse, 37–39, 46
System of the World, The (Newton), 236
Tables of Toledo (al-Zarqali), 114
tangent, 108, 309
tau and theta, decay modes, 82–83
taxonomy, 24
technology, 1, 34–41, 58–59, 71n, 138, 180
teleology, 23–24, 26, 36, 97, 203, 265
telescope
Arabs and, 118
focal length of, 329–33
Galileo and, 172, 174–80, 336
Kepler and, 180–81, 334
magnification and, 333–36
Newton and, 79, 219
tempering of musical scales, 282n
Tempier, Étienne, 129
terminal velocity, 25–26, 286–88
terminator, 175–76, 337
Tertullian, 50
Tetrabiblos (Ptolemy), 100
tetrahedron, 10, 12, 162, 275, 278–79
Thales, 3–5, 8, 11, 15, 44, 57, 254
Thales’ theorem, 272–74
Theaetetus, 18
theodolite, 36
Theodorus, 18
Theodosius I, emperor of Rome, 48, 60–61
Theogony (Hesiod), 47
Theon of Alexandria, 51, 110
Theon of Smyrna, 97, 99
thermodynamics, 260, 267
Thierry of Chartres, 125–26
Thomas, Dylan, 13
Thomson, J. J., 260
Thousand and One Nights, A (al-Rashid), 104
thrown objects, 27, 51, 71, 133, 135, 161, 193–94, 213, 342–46
Thucydides, 46
tides, 184–86, 205, 215, 242–44
Timaeus (Plato), 10–12, 45, 86, 97–98, 124–25, 257, 275
Times of London, 252
Timocharis, 74
Timurid dynasty, 118
Timur Lenk (Tamburlain), 118
Tischreden (Luther), 156
Titan (moon of Saturn), 195, 364
Toomer, G. J., 373, 374
Torricelli, Evangelista, 198–200
torr (unit of air pressure), 199
Toynbee, Arnold, xiv
translations, medieval Europe and, 125–27, 132
Treatise on Light (Huygens), 196–97, 220
Treatise on the Small Pox and Measles, A (Al-Razi), 111
triangles, 11–13, 15, 283–84
equilateral, 275–77
isosceles right, 12, 285
triangulation, 150
Tricks of the Prophets (al-Razi), 119
trigonometry, 15, 67, 68n–69n, 107–8, 207