The revolutionary progress in women’s rights may count as one of the greatest changes in human social arrangements of the last millennium. In this first century of a new millennium, women can attain the critical mass needed to take their equal place among society’s decision makers. As they do, they will prove that it is possible after all to create a better range of options for women, men, and children—a world where expressions of community and caring, once considered the “womanly values,” move decisively from the circle of the family to stand at the center of society as the most respected human values.
*Important feminist exposés of medical practices that were written in the seventies include: Ellen Frankfort’s Vaginal Politics (New York: Quadrangle Press, 1972), the Boston Women’s Health Book Collective’s Our Bodies, Ourselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), Barbara Seaman’s Free and Female (Greenwich: Fawcett Crest, 1972), Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born (New York, W. W. Norton and Co., 1976), Doris Haire’s The Cultural Warping of Childbirth (Seattle: International Childbirth Education Association), Naomi Weisstein’s essay “Psychology Constructs the Female” in V. Gornick and B. K. Moran, eds., Women in Sexist Society (New York: Signet/New American Library, 1971). Two anthologies including important feminist writings on medicine were: Claudia Dreifus’s Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women’s Health Care (New York: Vintage, 1978) and John Ehrenreich’s The Cultural Crisis of Modern Medicine (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978).
NOTES
Notes to Chapter One
1. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1975), p. 91.
2. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, “The Communist Manifesto,” in A Handbook on Marxism (New York: International Publishers, 1935), p. 26.
3. Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life 1400–1800 (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1975), p. ix.
4. Quoted in William F. Ogburn and M. F. Nimkoff, Technology and the Changing Family (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1955), p. 167.
5. Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1966), pp. 44–45.
6. Mary P. Ryan, Womanhood in America: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), p. 31.
7. See, for example: Arthur W. Calhoun, Social History of the American Family, Volume III: Since the Civil War (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1919); Floyd Dell, Love in the Machine Age (New York: Octagon Books, 1973); Ogburn and Nimkoff, op. cit.
8. Alexandra Kollontai, “The New Woman,” in The Autobiography of a Sexually Emancipated Communist Woman (New York: Schocken Books, 1975), p. 55.
9. Sigmund Freud, “Femininity,” in James Strachey (ed.), The Complete Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), p. 577.
10. Quoted in E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution 1789–1848 (New York: Mentor, 1962), p. 327.
11. Quoted in Eva Figes, Patriarchal Attitudes (New York: Stein and Day, 1970), p. 114.
12. Olive Schreiner, Woman and Labor (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1911), p. 65.
13. R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1962), p. 228.
14. Quoted in Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (New York: Avon, 1969), pp. 139–40.
15. G. Stanley Hall, “The Relations between Higher and Lower Races,” reprint of the Massachusetts Historical Society, January 1903 (unpaginated).
16. Quoted in Figes, op. cit., p. 107.
17. Olive Schreiner, The Story of an African Farm (New York: Fawcett Premier, 1968), p. 167.
Notes to Chapter Two
1. See Jules Michelet, Satanism and Witchcraft (Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press, 1939); Margaret Alice Murray, The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 1921); Christina Hole, A Mirror of Witchcraft (London: Chatto and Windus, 1957); Alan C. Kors and Edward Peters, Witchcraft in Europe: 1100–1700 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972); Pennethorne Hughes, Witchcraft (London: Penguin Books, 1952).
2. Quoted in Thomas S. Szasz, The Manufacture of Madness (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1970), p. 89.
3. Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, Malleus Maleficarum: The Hammer of Witches, Pennethorne Hughes (ed.), Montague Summers (trans.) (London: The Folio Society, 1968), p. 218.
4. Ibid., p. 30.
5. Ibid., p. 150.
6. Ibid., p. 128.
7. Susan B. Blum, “Women, Witches and Herbals,” The Morris Arboretum Bulletin, 25, September 1974, p. 43.
8. Quoted in Szasz, op. cit., p. 85.
9. Muriel Joy Hughes, Women Healers in Medieval Life and Literature (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1943), p. 90.
10. Joseph Kett, The Formation of the American Medical Profession: The Role of Institutions, 1780–1860 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), p. 108.
11. Jethro Kloss, Back to Eden (Santa Barbara, California: Woodbridge Publishing Co., 1972, first published 1934), p. 226.
12. Sarah Orne Jewett, “The Courting of Sister Wisby,” in Gail Parker (ed.), The Oven Birds: American Women on Womanhood 1820– 1920 (Garden City, New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1972), p. 221.
13. Samuel Haber, “The Professions and Higher Education in America: A Historical View,” in Margaret S. Gordon (ed.), Higher Education and the Labor Market (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), p. 241.
14. Whitfield J. Bell, Jr., “A Portrait of the Colonial Physician,” in The Colonial Physician and Other Essays (New York: Science History Publications, 1975), p. 22.
15. See Carl A. Binger, Revolutionary Doctor, Benjamin Rush (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966).
16. Haber, loc. cit.
17. William G. Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), p. 27.
18. Quoted in Binger, op. cit., p. 88.
19. Dolores Burns (ed.), The Greatest Health Discovery: Natural Hygiene, and Its Evolution Past, Present and Future (Chicago: Natural Hygiene Press, 1972), p. 30.
20. Richard Harrison Shryock, Medicine and Society in America: 1660–1860 (Ithaca, New York: Great Seal Books, 1960), p. 17.
21. Rothstein, op. cit., p. 43.
22. Binger, op. cit., p. 217.
23. Quoted in Rothstein, op. cit., p. 47.
24. Ibid., p. 51.
25. Shryock, op. cit., p. 70.
26. Rothstein, op. cit., pp. 333–39.
27. Shryock, op. cit., p. 131.
28. Quoted in Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. I: From Colonial Times to the Founding of the American Federation of Labor (New York: International Publishers, 1962), p. 132.
29. Mary P. Ryan, Womanhood in America: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), p. 128.
30. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, “Motherhood,” in Alice S. Rossi (ed.), The Feminist Papers: From Adams to De Beauvoir (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1973), p. 399.
31. Ibid., p. 401.
32. Richard Harrison Shryock, Medicine in America: Historical Essays (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), p. 117.
33. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), p. 181.
34. Quoted in Schlesinger, op. cit., p. 183.
35. Schlesinger, loc. cit.
36. Marcia Altman, David Kubrin, John Kwasnik, and Tina Logan, “The People’s Healers: Health Care and Class Struggle in the United States in the 19th Century,” 1974, mimeo, p. 18.
37. Quoted in Rothstein, op. cit., p. 129.
38. Ibid., p. 131.
39. Altman et al., op. cit., p. 23.
40. Rothstein, op. cit., p. 141.
41. Kett, op. cit., p. 119.
42. Altman et al., op. cit., p. 27.
43. Quoted in Kett, op. cit., p. 110.
44. Burns, op. cit., p. 137.
45. Rothstein, op. cit., p. 333.
46. Quoted in Altman et al., op. cit., p. 39.
48. Quoted in Burns, op. cit., p. 122.
49. Richard H. Shryock, quoted in Burns, op. cit., p. 126.
50. Burns, op. cit., p. 124.
51. Rothstein, op. cit., p. 156.
52. Ibid., p. 108.
53. Ibid., p. 108.
54. Gerald E. Markowitz and David Karl Rosner, “Doctors in Crisis: A Study of the Use of Medical Education Reform to Establish Modern Professional Elitism in Medicine,” American Quarterly 25, March 1973, p. 88.
55. Quoted in Thomas Woody, A History of Women’s Education in the United States, Vol. II (New York: Octagon Books, 1974), p. 348.
56. Altman et al., op. cit., p. 25.
57. Quoted in Woody, op. cit., p. 343.
58. Catherine Beecher, “On Female Health in America,” in Nancy Cott (ed.), Root of Bitterness: Documents of the Social History of American Women (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), p. 269.
59. Quoted in Woody, op. cit., pp. 344–45.
60. Quoted in Woody, op. cit., p. 349.
61. Journal of the American Medical Association 37, 1901, p. 1403.
62. Quoted in Woody, op. cit., p. 322.
63. Ibid., p. 360.
64. Woody, op. cit., p. 349.
65. Constance Rover, The Punch Book of Women’s Rights (South Brunswick, New Jersey: A. S. Barnes, 1967), p. 81.
66. Quoted in G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth Century America (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), p. 87.
67. Quoted in Shryock, Medicine in America: Historical Essays, p. 185.
68. Quoted in Woody, op. cit., p. 346.
69. Ibid., p. 361.
70. Quoted in Shryock, Medicine in America: Historical Essays, p. 184.
71. Quoted in Burns, op. cit., p. 118.
72. Ibid., p. 116.
73. Markowitz and Rosner, op. cit., p. 95.
74. Quoted in Haber, op. cit., p. 264.
Notes to Chapter Three
1. Sir William Osler, Aequanimitas: With Other Addresses to Medical Students, Nurses and Practitioners of Medicine (Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Sons, 1932), p. 219.
2. See Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967) and Barbara and John Ehrenreich, “The Professional/Managerial Class,” Radical America, March–April and May–June 1977.
3. Quoted in Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 99.
4. Quoted in Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), p. 200.
5. Edward A. Ross, The Social Trend (New York: Century, 1922), p. 171.
6. Quoted in Edwin T. Layton, The Revolt of the Engineers: Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession (Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University Press, 1971), p. 67.
7. Quoted in Paul F. Boller, Jr., American Thought in Transition: The Impact of Evolutionary Naturalism 1865–1900 (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1969), p. 120.
8. Sinclair Lewis, Arrowsmith (New York: Signet, 1961), pp. 84–85.
9. Ibid., p. 13.
10. Ibid., p. 25.
11. Boller, op. cit., p. 23.
12. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics, Carl N. Degler (ed.) (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 330–31.
13. Elizabeth Chesser, Perfect Health for Women and Children (London: Methuen, 1912), p. 49.
14. Quoted in Geraldine J. Clifford, “E. L. Thorndike: The Psychologist as Professional Man of Science,” in Historical Conceptions of Psychology, Mary Henle, Julian Jaynes, and John J. Sullivan (eds.) (New York: Springer Publishing, 1973), p. 234.
15. Quoted in Anna Robeson Burr, Weir Mitchell: His Life and Letters (New York: Duffield and Co., 1929), pp. 82–83.
16. Lewis, op. cit., p. 265.
17. Ibid., pp. 268–69.
18. William G. Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), p. 262.
19. George Bernard Shaw, The Doctor’s Dilemma (Baltimore: Penguin, 1954), pp. 107–8.
20. John H. Knowles, M.D., “The Responsibility of the Individual,” in John H. Knowles, M.D. (ed.), Doing Better and Feeling Worse: Health in the United States (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1977), p. 63.
21. Samuel Haber, “The Professions and Higher Education in America: A Historical View,” in Higher Education and the Labor Market, Margaret S. Gordon (ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), p. 264.
22. Allan Nevins, John D. Rockefeller (New York: Scribner, 1959), pp. 279–80.
23. Joseph F. Wall, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 833.
24. Ibid., p. 67.
25. E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in the Progressive Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, in press), p. 99.
26. Brown, loc. cit.
27. Lewis, op. cit., pp. 271–72.
28. Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the U.S. and Canada (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1910) (available from University Microfilms, Ltd., Ann Arbor, Michigan).
29. Rosemary Stevens, American Medicine and the Public Interest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), p. 56.
30. Brown, op. cit., p. 138.
31. Gerald Markowitz and David K. Rosner, “Doctors in Crisis: A Study of the Use of Medical Education Reform to Establish Modern Professional Elitism in Medicine,” American Quarterly 25 (1973), p. 83.
32. Rothstein, op. cit., p. 265.
33. Ibid., p. 266.
34. Haber, “The Professions and Higher Education in America,” p. 265.
35. J. E. Stubbs, “What Shall Be Our Attitude Toward Professional Mistakes?” Journal of the American Medical Association 32 (1899), p. 1176.
36. Haber, “The Professions and Higher Education in America,” p. 266.
37. Quoted in Harvey Williams Cushing, The Life of Sir William Osler, Vol. I (New York: Oxford University Press, 1940), p. 222.
38. Ibid., p. 223.
39. Quoted in Robert B. Bean, M.D., Sir William Osler: Aphorisms, William B. Bean, M.D. (ed.) (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950), p. 114.
40. Cushing, op. cit., p. 354.
41. Osler, Aequanimitas, p. 286.
42. Ibid., p. 260.
43. Frances E. Kobrin, “The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, July–August 1966, p. 350.
44. Molly C. Dougherty, “Southern Lay Midwives as Ritual Specialists,” paper presented at the American Anthropological Association Annual Meeting, Mexico City, 1974.
45. Austin Flint, M.D., “The Use and Abuse of Medical Charities in Medical Education,” Proceedings of the National Conference on Charities and Corrections, 1898, p. 331.
46. Quoted in Ann H. Sablosky, “The Power of the Forceps: A Study of the Development of Midwifery in the United States,” Master’s Thesis, Graduate School of Social Work and Social Research, Bryn Mawr College, May 1975, p. 15.
47. Quoted in Ursula Gilbert, “Midwifery as a Deviant Occupation in America,” unpublished paper, 1975.
48. G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), p. 63.
49. Sablosky, op. cit., p. 16.
50. Barker-Benfield, op. cit., p. 69.
51. Sablosky, op. cit., p. 17.
52. Barker-Benfield, op. cit., p. 69.
53. See Doris Haire, “The Cultural Warping of Childbirth,” International Childbirth Education Association News, Spring 1972; Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Co., 1976).
54. Kobrin, op. cit.
Notes to Chapter Four
1. Anna Robeson Burr, Weir Mitchell: His Life and Letters (New York: Duffield and Co., 1929), p. 289.
2. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: An Autobiography (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1975), p. 9
6.
3. Gilman, loc. cit.
4. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Yellow Wallpaper (Old Westbury, New York: The Feminist Press, 1973).
5. Gilman, Autobiography, p. 121.
6. Catherine Beecher, “Statistics of Female Health,” in Gail Parker (ed.), The Oven Birds: American Women on Womanhood 1820–1920 (Garden City, New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1972), p. 165.
7. Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1965), p. 216.
8. Quoted in F. O. Matthiessen, The James Family (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), p. 272.
9. Quoted in Irving H. Bartlett, Wendell Phillips: Brahmin Radical (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961), p. 78.
10. Quoted in Leon Edel (ed.), The Diary of Alice James (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1964), p. 14.
11. We thank medical historian Rick Brown for sharing this story with us.
12. Thorstein Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Modern Library, 1934).
13. Burr, op. cit., p. 176.
14. Olive Schreiner, Woman and Labor (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1911), p. 98.
15. John C. Gunn, M.D., Gunn’s New Family Physician (New York: Saalfield Publishing, 1924), p. 120.
16. New York Public Library Picture Collection, no source given.
17. Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, “On Female Invalidism,” in Nancy F. Cott (ed.), Root of Bitterness: Documents of the Social History of American Women (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1972), p. 307.
18. John S. Haller, Jr., and Robin M. Haller, The Physician and Sexuality in Victorian America (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1974), pp. 143–44.
19. Ibid., p. 168.
20. Ibid., p. 31.
21. Ibid., p. 28.
22. Gilman, The Yellow Wallpaper, pp. 9–10.
23. Quoted in G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II (New York: D. Appleton, 1905), p. 588.
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