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The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They Communicate—Discoveries from a Secret World

Page 21

by Peter Wohlleben


  41. Markus Johann Mühlbauer, seminar, “Wetter und Klima” (“Weather and climate”), in “Klimageschichte” (“Climate history”), WS 2012/13, 10, Regensburg University.

  42. A. Mihatsch, “Neue Studie: Bäume sind die besten Kohlendioxidspeicher” (“Trees are the best carbon dioxide storage units”), press release, 008/2004, Leipzig University, January 1, 2014. See also, Becky Oskin, “Old Trees Grow Faster than Young Ones, New Study Shows,” Huffpost Science, January 16, 2014, huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/16/big-trees-grow-faster-young_n_4609096.html, accessed February 10, 2016, and N.L. Stephenson, et al., “Rate of Tree Carbon Accumulation Increases Continuously with Tree Size,” Nature 507 (March 6, 2014): 90–93, nature.com/nature/journal/v507/n7490/full/nature12914.html, accessed February 10, 2016.

  43. L. Zimmermann, et al., “Wasserverbrauch von Wäldern” (“Water use in forests”), in Wald und Wasser (Woods and Water), LWF-aktuell-66 (Freising: Bayerischen Landesanstalt für Walt und Forstwirtschaft [Bavarian State Institute of Forestry], 2008), 16, lwf.bayern.de/boden-klima/bodeninventur/012063/index.php, accessed February 16, 2016.

  44. A.M. Makarieva and V.G. Gorshkov, “Biotic Pump of Atmospheric Moisture as Driver of the Hydrological Cycle on Land,” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 11(2) (2007): 1013–33, bioticregulation.ru/common/pdf/07e01s-hess_mg_.pdf, accessed February 16, 2016.

  45. D. Adam, “Chemical Released by Trees Can Help Cool Planet, Scientists Find,” Guardian, October 31, 2008, theguardian.com/environment/2008/oct/31/forests-climatechange, accessed December 30, 2014.

  46. T. Zhao, K. Axelsson, P. Krokene, and A.K. Borg-Karlson, “Fungal Symbionts of the Spruce Bark Beetle Synthesize the Beetle Aggregation Pheromone 2-Methyl-3-buten-2-ol,” Journal of Chemical Ecology 41(9) (September 2015): 848–52, link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10886-015-0617-3, accessed January 30, 2016.

  47. G. Möller, “Grosshöhlen als Zentren der Biodiversität” (“Large tree cavities as centers of biodiversity”) (2006), biotopholz.de/media/download_gallery/Grosshoehlen_-_Biodiversitaet.pdf, accessed December 27, 2015.

  48. Martin Gossner, et al., “Wie viele Arten leben auf der älteste Tanne des Bayerischen Walds?” (“How many species live on the oldest pine in the Bavarian Forest?”), AFZ-Der Wald 4 (2009): 164–65.

  49. G. Möller, “Grosshöhlen als Zentren der Biodiversität” (“Large tree cavities as centers of biodiversity”) (2006), biotopholz.de/media/download_gallery/Grosshoehlen_-_Biodiversitaet.pdf, accessed December 27, 2015.

  50. Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow, and Landscape Research, “Totholz und alte Bäume” (“Dead wood and old trees”), www.totholz.ch, accessed December 12, 2015.

  51. Marco Archetti, “The Origin of Autumn Colours by Coevolution,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 205(4) (August 21, 2000): 625–30, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10931756, accessed January 30, 2016.

  52. “Die Anatomie des Laubblattes” (“The anatomy of a deciduous leaf”), tecfaetu.unige.ch/perso/staf/notari/arbeitsbl_liestal/botanik/laubblatt_anatomie_i.pdf, accessed January 30, 2016.

  53. H. Claessens, “L’aulne glutineux (Alnus glutinosa): une essence forestière oubliée” (“The common alder [Alnus glutinosa]: a forgotten forest fundamental”), Silva belgica 97 (1990): 25–33.

  54. J. Laube, et al., “Chilling Outweighs Photoperiod in Preventing Precocious Spring Development,” Global Change Biology 20(1): 170–82.

  55. National Geographic Germany, “Woher wissen die Pflanzen wann es Fruehling wird?” (“How do the flowers know it’s spring?”), March 9, 2012, www.nationalgeographic.de/aktuelles/woher-wissen-die-pflanzen-wann-es-fruehling-wird, accessed November 24, 2015.

  56. Christoph Richter, “Phytonzidforschung—ein Beitrag zur Ressourcenfrage” (“Phytoncide research—a contribution to resource questions”), Hercynia N.F. 24(1) (1987): 95–106.

  57. P. Cherubini, et al., “Tree-Life History Prior to Death: Two Fungal Root Pathogens Affect Tree-Ring Growth Differently,” Journal of Ecology 90 (2002): 839–50.

  58. T. Stützel, et al., Wurzeleinwuchs in Abwasserleitungen und Kanäle (Tree roots growing in sewer pipes and tunnels) (Gelsenkirchen: Ministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen [North Rhine Westphalia Ministry for Environment, Nature, Agriculture, and Consumer Protection], July 2004), 31–35, ikt.de/website/down/f0108kurzbericht.pdf, accessed February 16, 2016.

  59. T. Sobcsky, “Der Eichenprozessionsspinner in Deutschland” (“The oak processionary in Germany”), BfN-Skripten 365 (Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Bundesamt für Naturschutz [Federal Agency for Nature Conservation], May 2014), bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript_365.pdf, accessed February 16, 2016.

  60. Sandra Ebeling, et al., “From a Traditional Medicine Plant to a Rational Drug: Understanding the Clinically Proven Wound Healing Efficacy of Birch Bark Extract,” PLoS One 9(1) (January 22, 2014): e86147, ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24465925, accessed February 16, 2016.

  61. Michael G. Grant, “The Trembling Giant,” Discover, October 1993, discovermagazine.com/1993/oct/thetremblinggian285, accessed January 25, 2016.

  62. G. Meister, Die Tanne (The Fir) (Bonn: Schutzgemeinschaft Deutscher Wald (SDW) [The German Association for the Protection of Forests and Woodlands], nd), sdw.de/cms/upload/pdf/Tanne_Faltblatt.pdf, accessed February 15, 2016.

  63. Reiner Finkeldey and Hans H. Hattemer, “Genetische Variation in Wälder—wo stehen wir?” (“Genetic variation in forests—where are we?”), Forstarchiv 81 (July 2010): 123–28.

  64. James K. Agee, Forest Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests (Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1993).

  65. Frank Harmuth, et al., “Der sächsische Wald im Dienst der Allgemeinheit” (“The woods of Saxony in the service of the general public”) (Dresden: Staatsbetrieb Sachsenforst [State Forestry Commission of Saxony], 2003), 33, smul.sachsen.de/sbs/download/Der_saechsische_Wald.pdf, accessed February 15, 2016.

  66. A. von Haller, Lebenswichtig aber unerkannt (Necessary for life yet unknown) (Langenburg: Boden und Gesundheit, 1980).

  67. Jee-Yon Lee and Duk-Chul Lee, “Cardio and Pulmonary Benefits of Forest Walking versus City Walking in Elderly Women: A Randomized, Controlled, Open-Label Trial,” European Journal of Integrative Medicine 6 (2014): 5–11.

  68. Wilhelmshaven Botanic Garden, “Wassertransport” (“Water transport”), www.wilhelmshaven.de/botanischergarten/infoblaetter/wassertransport.pdf, accessed November 21, 2014.

  69. S. Boch, et al., “High Plant Species Richness Indicates Management-Related Disturbances Rather Than the Conservation of Forests,” Basic and Applied Ecology 14 (2013): 496–505.

  70. Mark Hume, “Preserving the Great Bear Rainforest Doesn’t Really Save the Bears,” Globe and Mail, February 8, 2016, theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/preserving-the-great-bear-rainforest-doesnt-really-save-the-bears/article28662082/?cmpid=rss1, and Julie Gordon, “Historic Deal Protects Canada’s Pacific Forest ‘Jewel,’” Christian Science Monitor, February 11, 2016, csmonitor.com/World/Making-a-difference/Change-Agent/2016/0211/Historic-deal-protects-Canada-s-Pacific-forest-jewel, accessed February 12, 2016.

  71. Osprey Orielle Lake, Women’s Earth and Climate Action Network International, “Recognizing the Rights of Nature and the Living Forest,” Ecowatch, February 6, 2016, ecowatch.com/2016/02/02/rights-of-nature-living-forest, accessed February 17, 2016.

  72. Bavarian National Park, “Nationalpark mit Wildwuchs” (“National park with wilderness”), br.de/themen/wissen/nationalpark-bayerischer-wald104.html, accessed November 9, 2015.

  73. Süddeustche Zeitung, “Die Welt aus Sicht einer Fliege” (“A fly’s eye view of the world”), May 19, 2010, sueddeutsche.de/panorama/forschung-die-welt-aus-sicht-einer-fliege-1.908384, accessed January 21, 2016.

  74. Waldfreunde Königsdorf (Friends of the Königsdorf Forest), www.waldfreunde-koenigsdorf.de, accessed December 7, 2014.

  75. Healing Harvest Forest Foundation, www.healingharvestforestfoundation.org, accessed
February 15, 2016.

  76. J. Robbins, “Why Trees Matter,” New York Times, April 11, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/04/12/opinion/why-trees-matter.html?_r=1&, accessed December 30, 2014.

  INDEX

  acacia trees, 7

  acorns, 19, 27, 28, 113, 150, 187, 190

  Adirondack and Catskill parks, 233

  age, indications of: crown, 65; mossy growth, 64; process of aging, 65; and root system, 81; wrinkles in bark, 62, 63

  agriculture, modern, 11

  air, forest, 221, 223, 225

  alders, 78, 111, 143

  algae, 95, 225

  Alps, 103, 189

  Amazonian rain forest, 107

  ancient woodlands designation, 233

  animals: distinction from plants, 83; rights of, 241. See also herbivores; insects; pests

  annosus root rot, 158

  anthocyanin, 229

  ants: and aphids, 116, 119; habitation in wood, 129; for pest control, 118; red wood, 219

  aphids, 115, 116, 119

  Arctic shrubby birch, 80

  ash dieback fungus, 216

  ash trees, 144, 187, 216

  Asian long-horned beetle, 216

  aspen, quaking, 181, 183. See also pioneer tree species

  Australia, 233

  balanced systems, 93

  bald cypress, 144

  balsam, Himalayan, 218

  Baluška, František, 83

  bark: birch, 182; buds in, 149; and deer, 123; diseases of, 64; function of, 61; fungi entry through, 66; moisture retention in rough, 167; oak, 72; and pests, 115, 116; shedding of, 61; wrinkles in, 62, 63

  bark beetles, 54, 119, 132, 157, 236

  bats, 128

  Bavarian National Forest, 237

  bears: grizzly, 136; spirit, 234

  beaver, 111

  beech: bark of, 62, 63; climatic limitations for, 193; community needed for, 1–2, 15; competitive nature of, 74, 76, 193; copper, 229; defense mechanisms against pests, 7–8; and Douglas firs, 214; and drought conditions, 77; estimating age of, 31, 63; growth strategy of, 33, 190; and humans, 190; leaf growth timing, 148; lifespan of, 155; and lightning, 205; microclimates created by, 99, 194; migration of, 189, 191; and moss, 168; and oaks, 69; pests for, 26, 115, 117; and pioneer species, 184; pruning of, 173; and rain, 102; reproduction by, 19, 25, 27, 29, 113, 187, 190; rest needed by, 142, 226; severely damaged, 71; small, 80; and water, 43, 57, 193; in wet conditions, 78, 111; winter preparations by, 144. See also deciduous trees

  beech leaf-mining weevil, 26

  beechnuts, 19, 27, 28, 29, 69, 113, 150, 187, 190

  bees, 20, 23, 116

  beetle mites, 88, 90

  beetles: Asian long-horned, 216; bark, 54, 119, 132, 157, 236; black-headed cardinal, 55; blood-necked click, 129; habitation in wood, 129; hermit, 129; stag, 133; woodboring, 54, 70

  betulin, 182

  bicolored deceiver (Laccaria bicolor), 54

  biodiversity: failure to notice, 231; importance of, 53, 130; loss of, 232; in trees, 131

  birch: Arctic shrubby, 80; bark of, 62, 182; and ice, 141; paper, 247; seeds of, 187; silver, 181, 182, 183, 185; in wet conditions, 78

  bird cherry tree, 22, 28, 73, 118, 137

  birds: chaffinches, 112; and conifers, 21, 192; dispersal of seeds and organisms by, 28, 90, 217; fieldfare, 217; in forests, 231; habitations in trees, 127; jays, 69, 113, 150, 187, 190, 192; nutcracker, 192; nuthatch, 127; red crossbills, 21; sapsuckers, 114; woodpecker, 54, 114, 125

  black cherry, 213

  black-headed cardinal beetle, 55

  black poplar, 215

  blackthorn, 181

  blood-necked click beetle, 129

  blood pressure, 223

  blue skies, 227

  boars, 19, 27, 72, 191

  bracket fungus, 133

  Brazil, 107

  breathing, 224

  British Columbia, 234

  bumblebee hoverfly, 132

  butterflies, 231

  Caledonian Forest, 92

  cambium, 45, 54, 119, 158, 159

  capillary action, 56, 58

  carbohydrates, 51, 114, 224

  carbon 14 dating, 81

  carbon dioxide, 93, 95, 224

  caterpillars, 117, 177

  Central Europe: forests in, 64, 234, 236

  chaffinches, 112

  character, tree, 152, 154

  cherry trees: bird cherry, 22, 28, 73, 118, 137; black, 213; fall leaves of, 144; wild, 137

  chestnut trees, 12, 187

  chlorophyll, 1–2, 138, 228, 229

  climate: abrupt changes in, 196; behavioral adaptations for, 197; genetic adaptations for, 198; microclimates, 99, 101, 107, 194; and tree migration, 188, 194. See also climate change; weather-related damage

  climate change: forests as tool against, 97, 98, 107; and greenhouse gases, 96; and permafrost, 40; temperature rises from, 153, 188; worse case scenario, 196. See also climate

  coal, 94, 95

  color, 227, 228

  commercial forests, see managed forests

  communication: and brain in root system, 82; loss of, 11; via electrical signals, 8, 10, 12, 83; via root and fungal systems, 10, 51; via scent in humans, 6–7; via scent in trees, 7–9, 12; via sound, 12, 48

  community, see friendship

  conifers: adaptation to additional light, 46; aging in, 65; air filtration by, 156, 222; blood pressure under, 223; and ice, 141; ideal shape for, 37, 41; microclimates created by, 107; outside of natural environment, 219, 222; phytoncides from, 156; and process conservation, 236; and rain, 103; reproduction by, 19, 21, 187; sickness in, 157; and streams, 109; terpenes from, 107; water transport vessels in, 57; winter preparation by, 138, 144. See also fir; pines; spruce

  conifer sawflies, 118

  conservation: economics of, 91; examples of, 233; failure of human attempts, 211; interference in regeneration, 237; and misconceptions about forest appearances, 238; and open clearings, 232; process of forest regeneration, 243; public demand for, 243; and safety in forests, 239

  copper beech, 229

  coppicing, 80

  coral, 95

  cork oaks, 207

  counting, ability to, 148

  crowns: and aging, 65; on beeches, 69; on conifers, 102; in heavy rain, 202; on oaks, 71; pruning of, 173; shade from, 32; in storms, 38, 140; wetland habitats in, 132

  cypress, bald, 144

  damage, see diseases; injuries; weather-related damage

  dawn redwood, 144

  dead wood, 130, 133

  death: end of life, 66; from herbivores, 50; from lack of rest, 142, 226; and reproduction, 27; strangulation from climbing plants, 36, 165; in urban areas, 175, 178; from winter storms, 139

  deciduous trees: adaptation to additional light, 46; aging in, 65; and Asian long-horned beetle, 216; and bees, 20; evolution of, 139; growth strategies of, 41; ideal shape for, 37, 153, 203; and rain, 103; reproduction by, 19, 21, 25; sickness in, 157; and snow, 141; and streams, 109; and tornadoes, 202; water transport vessels in, 57; winter preparation by, 137, 144; and winter storms, 139. See also beech; oaks; willows

  deer: and bark, 123; and silver firs, 193; and young trees, 35, 120. See also herbivores

  defense mechanisms: in acacia trees, 7; in beech, 7–8; against climatic changes, 197; in community-oriented species, 182; in elms, 8–9; against fire, 207; against fungi, 153, 160; hidden reserves, 156; human sensing of, 222; in oaks, 7–8, 9, 10, 70; against pests, 7–9, 116, 118; phytoncides, 156; in pines, 8–9; of pioneer species, 181, 183, 185; in quaking aspen, 183; in silver birch, 182, 185; in spruce, 7–8, 119; in willows, 9

  diseases, 64, 156. See also injuries; weather-related damage

  dogs, 176

  Douglas fir, 62, 145, 206, 211, 213, 247

  dove, Eurasian collared, 217

  drought, 27, 45, 77, 209

  drunken forests, 41

  dust, 167, 212, 221, 222

  dwarf trees, 79

  Ecuador, 234

&nbs
p; elder trees, 144

  electrical signals, 8, 10, 12, 83

  elms, 8–9, 209

  erosion, 87

  etiquette, see shape, tree

  Eurasian collared dove, 217

  evolution, 195, 227

  fever, 9

  fieldfare, 217

  fir: grand, 211; pests for, 115; and rain, 102; shedding of needles, 145; silver, 62, 65, 153, 192

  fir, Douglas, 62, 145, 206, 211, 213, 247

  fire, 206

  fire salamander, 110

  First Nations, 234

  fish, 245

  floods, 209

  forest management, see conservation

  forest preserves, 233

  forestry industry, xiii. See also managed forests

  forests: biodiversity in, 231; as carbon dioxide vacuum, 93; drunken, 41; human reactions to, 222; importance of, xi, 244; open areas in, 232; research on, 131, 249; as superorganisms, 3; as water pump, 106. See also conservation; managed forests; old-growth forests

  fossil fuels, 94

  freshwater snail, 107, 109

  friendship: advantages of, 3–4; interconnection of roots, 2–3; levels of, 4–5; living stump example, 1–2; mutual support from, 15, 17, 249; and spacing of trees, 16

  fruit flies, 242

  fruit trees, 12, 148

  fungi: introduction to, 50; and aphids, 116; and bark beetles, 119; and beetle mites, 88; defense against, 153, 160; host selection by, 52; lifespan of, 52; medical benefits from, 52; mycelium of, 50; partnership with, 2, 50, 54, 247, 248; and pinesap, 122; and pioneer species, 185; and pruned trees, 173; and resource redistribution, 16; resources taken from trees by, 51; and small cow wheat, 122; as threat, 66, 126, 157, 159; and toxins, 51; and tree communication, 10. See also fungi, types of

  fungi, types of: annosus root rot, 158; ash dieback fungus, 216; bracket fungus, 133; honey fungus, 50, 121; Laccaria bicolor (bicolored deceiver), 54; oak milkcap, 50; red belt conk, 133. See also fungi

  Gagliano, Monica, 12, 47

  gall midges, 117

 

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