4. John T. Hudson, Journal of the Tamana [1805–1807], HM 30491, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California; “Journal of a voyage perform’d on the ship Amethyst. From Boston to the Coast of California. &c,” Lewis Coolidge Diary, 1806–1811, Ms. S-805, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Robert C. Schmitt and Eleanor C. Nordyke, “Death in Hawaiʻi: The Epidemics of 1848–1849,” Hawaiian Journal of History 35 (2001): 1–13; David Igler, “Diseased Goods: Global Exchanges in the Eastern Pacific Basin, 1770–1850,” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (2004): 693–719; Jean Barman and Bruce Watson, Leaving Paradise: Indigenous Hawaiians in the Pacific Northwest, 1787–1898 (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2006), 24–25, 60; John Ryan Fischer, “Cattle in Hawaiʻi: Biological and Cultural Exchange,” Pacific Historical Review 76, no. 3 (2007): 347–72; David Igler, The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 25–26.
5. Richard Henry Dana, Jr. to Charlotte [his sister], March 20, 1835, in Richard Henry Dana, Jr., Journal of a Voyage to the Coast of California, 1834–1836, Microfilm P-124, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Richard Henry Dana, Jr. Two Years Before the Mast: A Personal Narrative of Life at Sea [1840] (New York: Modern Library, 2001), 79, 93, 153–54. Hawaiian-language phrases, and italics, in the original. On Dana, see also Arrell Morgan Gibson (with John S. Whitehead), Yankees in Paradise: The Pacific Basin Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993), 379–410; Paul A. Gilje, Liberty on the Waterfront: American Maritime Culture in the Age of Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 228–58.
6. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 158–61, 265–67. There is an intriguing record of “Kanaka John alias Hope,” one of four Hawaiian sailors who shipped out of Boston in 1831 and arrived on the California coast in 1832–33. It is not clear if this is the same Hope as befriended by Dana in 1835. See Voyage of the brig Chalcedony, Logbook 1829–1837, Edward Horatio Faucon Logbooks, 1829–1863, Ms. N-1216, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.
7. Steven W. Hackel, “Land, Labor, and Production: The Colonial Economy of Spanish and Mexican California,” in Contested Eden: California Before the Gold Rush, ed. Ramon A. Gutierrez and Richard J. Orsi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 111–46, esp. 132–34; John Ryan Fischer, Cattle Colonialism: An Environmental History of the Conquest of California and Hawaiʻi (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
8. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 165; Fischer, Cattle Colonialism, 100–111.
9. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 65, 93; William Ellis, Polynesian Researches . . . , Vol. IV (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), 269.
10. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 98, 152–53, 165. On “knowing nature through work,” see Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995). On workscapes, see Thomas G. Andrews, Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 122–56.
11. “Libro de Cuentas Corrientes Fol. 3 que sigue del fol. 2 Deciembre 3, 1838 y perteneciente a H.D. Fitch [Current Account Book Vol. 3 following Vol. 2 December 3, 1838 and belonging to H.D. Fitch],” Volume 5, Fitch Family Papers, MSS C-B 357, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Dana, Two Years Before the Mast, 153–54, 166.
12. William Henry Ellison, ed., The Life and Adventures of George Nidever, 1802–1883 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1937), 36, 40; Adele Ogden, The California Sea Otter Trade, 1784–1848 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1941), 3–14, 106–13, 127.
13. Early California Population Project Database (2006), The Huntington Library, San Marino, California, http://www.huntington.org/Information/ECPPmain.htm (accessed July 17, 2013). Data on Hawaiians at California missions is tabulated in appendix B, tables 1.1–1.5, in Gregory Rosenthal, “Hawaiians Who Left Hawaiʻi: Work, Body, and Environment in the Pacific World, 1786–1876” (Ph.D. diss., Stony Brook University, 2015), 460–61.
14. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California, 7 vols. in The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, vols. 18–24 (San Francisco: The History Company, 1886–88), 4: 131–32; Barman and Watson, Leaving Paradise, 152; Albert L. Hurtado, John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 43–51, 65.
15. J.A. Sutter to P.B. Reading, January 3, 1844 and January 1, 1845, “Letters to Pearson Barton Reading (transcripts),” Volume 2, Box 1, John Augustus Sutter Papers, MSS C-B 631, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Hurtado, John Sutter, 58, 115.
16. [Roster of the forces which left Sutter’s Fort, January 1, 1845], n.d., Volume 1, Box 1, John Augustus Sutter Papers, MSS C-B 631, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; J.A. Sutter to P.B. Reading, April 24, 1844, January 1, 1845, and February 15, 1845, “Letters to Pearson Barton Reading (transcripts),” Volume 2, Box 1, ibid.
17. James P. Delgado, To California by Sea: a Maritime History of the California Gold Rush (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 8–9; David Chappell, Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997), 106; Hackel, “Land, Labor, and Production,” 136.
18. “The First American Census in California,” Sacramento Daily Union, July 25, 1860; Richard A. Greer, “Wandering Kamaʻainas: Notes on Hawaiian Emigration Before 1848,” Journal of the West 6, no. 2 (1967): 221–25, esp. 223; Barman and Watson, Leaving Paradise, 152. On Hawaiian sailors in Mexican ports, also see Accounts of the Schooner Julia Ann (1844), Folder 628:4, William A. Leidesdorff Papers, 1838–1848, MSS C-B 628, Box 1, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Accounts with Wm. A. Leidesdorff for supplies, Folder 628:22, ibid.; Accounts for the crew of the Schooner Julia Ann, 1843, Folder 5, Box 1, William A. Leidesdorff collection, MS 1277, California Historical Society, San Francisco; Johny et al., Agreement to serve on Leidesdorff’s ship, August 22, 1846, Reel 1, Box 2, William A. Leidesdorff Papers, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California; Joe Ham et al., Agreement to serve on Leidesdorff’s boat, November 1, 1847; and Jim [Kinokolo], Shipping paper with W.A. Leidesdorff, December 22, 1847, Reel 2, Box 4, ibid.
19. “The First American Census in California,” Sacramento Daily Union, July 25, 1860. On domestic servitude in San Francisco, see Robert Crichton Wyllie, section 59, “Native Seamen,” in “Notes, On the Shipping, Trade, Agriculture, Climate . . . ,” The Friend, September 4, 1844; and Charles Hitchcock to R.C. Wyllie, private communication, February 20, 1854, Folder 577, Box 35, Correspondence with Hawaiian Officials Abroad, 1842–1900, Record Group 404, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
20. K.H. Dimmick to Sarah [his wife], August 2, 1847, “Letters. June 27, 1847—August 12, 1847,” Box 1, Kimball Hale Dimmick Papers, MSS C-B 847, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Bancroft, History of California, 5:657.
21. Alcalde’s Office to W.A. Leidesdorff, February 22, 1847, Folder 11, Box 1, William A. Leidesdorff Collection, MS 1277, California Historical Society, San Francisco. On Leidesdorff, see W.S. Savage, “The Influence of William Alexander Leidesdorff on the History of California,” The Journal of Negro History 38, no. 3 (1953): 322–32.
22. See “Canaca and Indian Accounts” and “Book Canacar” in Folders 7, 8, and 11, Box 1, William A. Leidesdorff Collection, MS 1277, California Historical Society, San Francisco.
23. Ibid.; Joe Ham et al., Agreement to serve on Leidesdorff’s boat, November 1, 1847, Reel 2, Box 4, William A. Leidesdorff Papers, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.
24. “Canaca and Indian Accounts” and “Book Canacar” in Folders 7, 8, and 11, Box 1, William A. Leidesdorff Collection, MS 1277, California Historical Society, San Francisco; Jim [Kinokolo], Shipping paper with W.A. Leidesdorff, December 22, 1847, Reel 2, Box 4, William A. Leidesdorff Papers, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California. The full list of Leidesdorff’s Hawaiian workers in Yerba Buena circa 1847 are: Capt
Johnney Canaca (1845–48); Canaca Johney Wife (Wina) (1846–47); Harry Oahu (1847–48); Joe Ham (1846–48); Ben (1847); Johnny Lewis (1847–48); Henry (1847–48); Johnny Davis (1847–48); William Russell (1847); Joe Russell (1847–48); Thomas Edwards (1847–48); Jack (1847); Johney Lili (1847–48); Jim (1847–48); Jack Cayman (1847–48); Canaka George (1847); Canaka Boy (1847); John Russel (1846–47); Canaka Thom (1847); Canaka Joe Parker (1846–47).
25. “Ina makamaka me na pili koko o JACK HINA, Pika Paele, Kale Puaanui, Kaupalewai, Keoni Kiwini a me Keoni Parani, Keoni Panana, e hele mai oukou ma kuu keena, a kamailio me a’u, alaila, hoolohe ana kekahi pomaikai pili ana ia oukou. W.C. Jones (Aeto.) Honolulu, Iune 24, 1873”; “Ina makamaka me na pili koko o . . . [If friends with the blood relatives of . . . ],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, June 28, 1873; Bancroft, History of California, 5:678–85.
26. On the dispossession of Californios following U.S. conquest, see Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: from Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848–1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), esp. 35–37, 113–16.
27. “Law Courts,” Daily Alta California, June 5, 1851; “Olelo Hoolaha [Notice],” Ka Hae Hawaii, January 7, 1857; “Court Proceedings,” Daily Alta California, May 1, 1860; Charles A. Tuttle, Reports of Cases Determined in the Supreme Court of the State of California, vol. 29 (Sacramento: O.M. Clayes & Co., 1866), 19–47; “Ina makamaka me na pili koko o . . . [If friends with the blood relatives of . . . ],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, June 28, 1873.
28. “Ua manaoia e hiki mai na kanaka 20,000 mamua ae o Ianuari e hiki mai ana, a hookahi makahiki hou aku 50,000. E hele nele mai ka nui o lakou.” “Kalifornia [California]” and “He Goula Ma Kalifornia [Gold at California],” Ka Elele Hawaii, August 26, 1848; John Paty to Capt. Henry D. Fitch, October 1, 1848, and Everett & Co. to Capt. H.D. Fitch, October 24, 1848, Folders 535 and 551, Box 3, Documentos para la historia de California, MSS C-B 55, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Data from The Polynesian is in David W. Forbes, An Act to Prohibit Hawaiians from Emigrating to California “Where They May Die in Misery.” 1850 (San Francisco: Paul Markham Khan, 1986). On population loss, see Schmitt and Nordyke, “Death in Hawaiʻi”; Seth Archer, “Epidemics and Culture in Hawaiʻi, 1778–1840” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Riverside, 2015).
29. “Nui loa no nae ka pilikia malaila; Eia kekahi pilikia, o ka wi; aole ai, kaumaha loa ke kumukuai o ka ai. Loihi loa kahi e loaai ka ai, Eia kekahi pilikia, o ka mai; nui ka mai, a nui hoi ka make. Eia kekahi; nui ka inu rama, a me ka haunaele; aole Kanawai, aole mea nana e hoomalu; aole la Sabati; he wahi ino loa maoli no”; “Ua lana ka manao o kekahi poe kanaka e holo ilaila. No ka naaupo! Mai holo; e noho no; aole pono ka holo ilaila. E ike auanei kakou, o ka poe holo ilaila, e poino ana.” “Kalifornia [California]” and “He Goula Ma Kalifornia [Gold at California],” Ka Elele Hawaii, August 26, 1848; William Little Lee to Simon Greenleaf, August 16, 1849, William Little Lee letters, 1847–1850, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
30. K.H. Dimmick to Sarah [his wife], September 3, 1848, “Letters. September 3, 1848—April 10, 1849,” Box 1, Kimball Hale Dimmick Papers, MSS C-B 847, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; A[nthony] Ten Eyck to J.L. Folsom, November 14, 1848, Reel 2, Box 5, William A. Leidesdorff Papers, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California; William Little Lee to Simon Greenleaf, August 16, 1849, William Little Lee letters, 1847–1850, The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley; Forbes, An Act to Prohibit; Delgado, To California by Sea, 97–99; Barman and Watson, Leaving Paradise, 152.
31. “A Trip from the Sandwich Islands to Lower Oregon and Upper California,” The Friend, December 1, 1849; Bancroft, History of California, 6: 77; U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, 1850 Manuscript Census, California, population schedules, familysearch.org, https://www.familysearch.org (accessed March 10, 2012). Data on Hawaiians in California—in the 1850, 1860, and 1870 U.S. censuses—is tabulated in appendix B, tables 2.1–4.6, in Rosenthal, “Hawaiians Who Left Hawaiʻi,” 461–67. My methodology for using the census data is as follows: I used digital scans of the original manuscript population schedules at familysearch.org to search for all persons born in the “Sandwich Islands,” “Sandwich Isles,” “Sandwich Is.,” “Sand Isles,” “Hawaii,” “Honolulu,” and other permutations of these place names then residing in the State of California. I also searched for “Kanaka” and “Kanakas” in California, and found many more nameless Hawaiians by that method. My data analysis differs from that of Janice K. Duncan, Minority without a Champion: Kanakas on the Pacific Coast, 1788–1850 (Portland: Oregon Historical Society, 1972), 14, who reported 319 Hawaiians living in California in 1850. Her data is from Doris Wright, “The Making of Cosmopolitan California: An Analysis of Immigration, 1848–1870,” California Historical Society Quarterly 19, no. 4 (1940): 323–43.
32. Charles W. Haskins, The Argonauts of California (New York: Fords, Howard & Hulbert, 1890), 77–78; Malcolm J. Rohrbough, “‘We Will Make Our Fortunes—No Doubt of It’: The Worldwide Rush to California,” in Riches for All: The California Gold Rush and the World, ed. Kenneth N. Owens (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 55–70, esp. 57.
33. Rohrbough, “We Will Make Our Fortunes,” 56; Richard H. Dillon, “Kanaka Colonies in California,” Pacific Historical Review 24, no. 1 (1955): 17–23; Edward D. Beechert, Working in Hawaii: A Labor History (Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1985), 37, 41–49; Wyllie to friend, July 11, 1850, as quoted in Forbes, An Act to Prohibit.
34. Iosepa Opunui, letter to the editor, Ka Hae Hawaii, November 24, 1858; L. Kamika [Lowell Smith], “Ku holo ana o L. Kamika mai Sacramenato i Coloma [The going of L. Smith from Sacramento to Coloma],” Ka Hae Hawaii, January 12, 1859; Charles Kenn, “A Visit to California Gold Fields,” Seventy-Fourth Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1965 (Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society, 1966), 7–16. Phyllis Lindert Gernes, the editor of The Daily Journal of Stephen Wing, 1852 to 1860 (Garden Valley, CA: Phyllis Gernes, 1982), 33, claims “Irish creek falls” was “an area being worked by Kanakas” as early as 1855. Also, the 1860 U.S. census noted 25 Hawaiians living at Irish Creek: 22 male migrants, one female migrant, and two small children born in California to the sole woman and her husband. U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, 1860 Manuscript Census, Coloma Township, El Dorado County, California, population schedule, p. 353, familysearch.org, https://www.familysearch.org (accessed March 10, 2012).
35. Translation by Charles Kenn in “A Visit to California Gold Fields,” 11.
36. “eiwa wale noi keia wa; he 17 ka i hele aku ma kahi e, i keia mau la, no ka mea, he uuku ka wai ma ‘Irish Creek’ i keia manawa. He 30 mile maluna o na pali, kahi a lakou i hele aku ai, e imi ana i ka hana”; “he mau Baibala, kauoha hou, himeni hoolea, himeni kamaliii, lira, haiao, hoikehonua, helunaau, helu kamalii”; “Hauoli nui lakou, no ka hiki ana mai o kekahi mau palapala Hawaii.” All quotes from Kamika [Lowell Smith], “Ku holo ana o L. Kamika mai Sacramenato i Coloma [The going of L. Smith from Sacramento to Coloma],” Ka Hae Hawaii, January 12, 1859.
37. “Ua ike au i ka lakou hana, o ka eli goula; a ua ike hoi au i kekahi poe haole a me na Pake, e eli ana i ke goula. Aole loaa nui mai ia lakou ia mau la, no ka uuku o ka wai. Elua dala kekahi, ekolu kekahi i ka la; a he ole hoi kekahi.” Kamika [Lowell Smith], “Ku holo ana o L. Kamika mai Sacramenato i Coloma [The going of L. Smith from Sacramento to Coloma],” Ka Hae Hawaii, January 12, 1859. On hydraulic mining in California, see Gray A. Brechin, Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 32–34; Andrew C. Isenberg, Mining California: An Ecological History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005), 23–51.
38. “Aole lakou malama i na dala, a me goula e like me na haole, a me na Pake. No ka mea, ina e loaa mai ia lakou kekahi mau dala, ua hele i ke kauhale haole, a kuai i kela mea keia mea no ke kino
, a pau aku, alaila hoi a hana hou”; “I ko’u manao aole lakou e hoi nui mai ma Hawaii nei. Ua pau i ka make kekahi poe i hele ma Kalefonia; a e noho paha keia poe ma kela aina goula, a make ilaila”; “aole maopopo. Nui ke aloha i na makua, a me na hoahanau ma Hawaii, aka, ua hilahila makou e hoi wale me ka waiwai ole.” All quotes from Kamika [Lowell Smith], “Ku holo ana o L. Kamika mai Sacramenato i Coloma [The going of L. Smith from Sacramento to Coloma],” Ka Hae Hawaii, January 12, 1859; Lowell Smith to James Hunnewell, February 22, 1867, Folder 3: Letters, 1864–1867, Box 12 (Volume 24 1864–1879), James Hunnewell, Business Papers, 1823–1883, Baker Library Historical Collections, Harvard Business School, Boston, Massachusetts.
39. Opunui, letter to the editor, Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858; U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, 1860 Manuscript Census, California, population schedules, familysearch.org and ancestry.com, https://www.familysearch.org and http://ancestry.com (accessed March 10, 2012); David A. Chang, “Borderlands in a World at Sea: Concow Indians, Native Hawaiians, and South Chinese in Indigenous, Global, and National Spaces,” The Journal of American History 98 (2011): 384–403. On return migration, see Chappell, Double Ghosts, 138–40; Barman and Watson, Leaving Paradise, 150–51. For more information on the census data, see note 31.
40. “Ina i makemake na keiki kuapaa ole o ka aina oluolu o Hawaii . . .”; “Ina makemake lakou e hoolilo i ko lakou mau kino, i hanau ia a ola ia malalo o ka la wela o ko lakou mau Mokupuni, o na pilikia o ke anu a me ka wela o na kau eha o ka makahiki okoa iloko o ka la hookahi; Alaila, pono ia lakou ke holo i Kaliponia. Ina makemake lakou e haalele i ko lakou ai maikai a nui, a oluolu i ka loaa ana, no ka ai ano e kupono ole i ko lakou ola, a uku nui i ke kuai ana; alaila, pono ia lakou e holo i Kaliponia.
Beyond Hawai'i Native Labor in the Pacific World Page 34