18. Glidden & Williams to D.C. Waterman Co., November 10, 1862, and Glidden & Williams to Messrs. D.C. Waterman & C[o]., March 4, 1862, in D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi.
19. P.W. Penhallow to D.C. Waterman, March 10 and March 17, 1862, D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi.
20. P.W. Penhallow to Messrs. D.C. Waterman & Co., September 11, 1862, D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi.
21. Shipping article for U.S. Guano Company (1864) in Box 1, Folder “Shipping Articles 1864,” Harbormaster’s Shipping Articles, 1862–1900, Record Group 89, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
22. Scores of contracts for guano labor are found in the Harbormaster’s Shipping Articles, 1862–1900, Record Group 89, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu. On literacy among nineteenth-century Hawaiians, see M. Puakea Nogelmeier, Mai Paʻa i Ka Leo: Historical Voice in Hawaiian Primary Materials, Looking Forward and Listening Back (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press/Awaiaulu, 2010), xii, 59, 71.
23. Shipping articles for Phoenix Isl[an]d Guano Co[mpany] (1864) and American Guano Co[mpany], in Box 5, Folder 2, “Shipping Articles 1864, 1866, 1867,” Harbormaster’s Shipping Articles, 1862–1900, Record Group 89, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
24. Copy of a letter from Harbor Master to Dr. Judd, April 30, 1859, in Volume 2, Oct 1853—Aug 1866, Collector General of Customs Seamen’s Records, Record Group 88, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
25. “O na rula hana a makou he mau mea wale no i ku i ka oiaio ole o ko makou hana ana, he hiki no hoi i ka Luna ke hoololi.” J.M. Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866; Elizabeth Kinau Wilder to G.P. Judd, n.d., reprinted in Elizabeth Leslie Wight, ed., The Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder (Honolulu: Paradise of the Pacific Press, 1909), 130–31. On contract labor, see Skaggs, Great Guano Rush, 165–67.
26. “ua hoonani ia o loko a maikai”; “na iliili”; “a ua halii la oloko a nani loa me na pela maikai me na uluna moe”; “Ua nani maoli ke kukulu ana o keia hale, a huli aku kona puka i ke awa e ku ai na moku.” Quoted passages are from Kaulainamoku et al., “Mea hou ma Jarvis Island [News at Jarvis Island],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 9, 1859; Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 670. The map drawn by Charles H. Judd, luna of Jarvis Island in 1858, and of Baker Island in 1859, is reprinted in Judd, Guano Islands, 101. On the production of space, see Andrews’s discussion of workers’ housing and “company towns” in Killing for Coal, 186–89, 197–232.
27. “he okoa loa ka poe nana e paa ka waha o ka eke paiki”; “i ka poe hapai eke iluna o ke kaa nui eha kanaka, elua ma kekahi aoao, elua ma kekahi aoao.” Quoted passages from S.W.B. Kaulainamoku, “No ka maikai o na Aina Kukaemanu o G.P. Judd [Concerning the well-being of the Guano Lands of G.P. Judd],” Ka Hae Hawaii, December 14, 1859; E.P. Thompson, “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” Past and Present 38, no. 1 (1967): 56–97. For more reflections on time, see Judd, Guano Islands, 33, 37, 38, 40–41, 51; Closson, “Under the Southern Cross,” 210. On guano dust, see “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, June 20, 1869; Skaggs, Great Guano Rush, 159–61, 167. Shovels, wheelbarrows, and other company investments in labor-aiding technologies are in an article in The Daily Evening Standard, December 27, 1856, reprinted in Ward, American Activities, 1:190; J.M. Kailiopio, “Mai Puakailima mai [From Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, December 23, 1865; Judd, Guano Islands, 34; Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 128–29.
28. William Chisholm to Capt[ain] Waterman, November 27, 1863; Wm Chisholm to D.C. Waterman, June 28 [1864]; William Chisholm to Capt[ain] Waterman, October 25 [1864], in D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. Emphases in the original.
29. Wm Chisholm to D.C. Waterman, June 28 [1864], D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. On the weight of bagged guano, see Kaulainamoku et al., “Mea hou ma Jarvis Island [News at Jarvis Island],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 9, 1859; “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, April 21, 1869; Judd, Guano Islands, 36. On the loading rate, see Kaluahine, “No na Aina Kukae Manu [Concerning the Guano Lands],” Ka Hae Hawaii, August 24, 1859; Judd, Guano Islands, passim. On Paukeaho, see Kaluahine, “No na Aina Kukae Manu [Concerning the Guano Lands],” Ka Hae Hawaii, August 24, 1859. Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert in Hawaiian Dictionary: Hawaiian-English, English-Hawaiian (rev. ed.; Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 1986), suggest that Paukeaho may be Baker Island, but this is inaccurate. Laborers’ letters to Hawaiian newspapers make clear that Puakaʻilima is Baker, and Kaluahine’s letter notes a great sailing distance between Paukeaho and Puakaʻilima, therefore Paukeaho must be Jarvis. Also see Ty P. Kāwika Tengan, “Of Colonization and Pono in Hawaiʻi,” Peace Review 16, no. 2 (2004): 157–67, esp. 158.
30. “O ka aina”; “he wahi aina uuku no; ina e ku aku a nana ma kekahi aoao, ike ia aku no ke poi mai ka nalu.” Kaluahine, “No na Aina Kukae Manu [Concerning the Guano Lands],” Ka Hae Hawaii, August 24, 1859. On reading Ka Hae Hawaii, see J. Kuhaloa, “He palapala mai ka mokupuni o Jarvis mai [A letter from the island of Jarvis],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 17, 1858. Kuhaloa ends his letter stating that all the laborers eagerly await the brig Josephine to “[a ku koke hou mai me ka Hae Hawaii, iloko o na pule elua] swiftly return with ka Hae Hawaii, within two weeks.” Elsewhere, Albert Judd describes how laborers on Jarvis were “eagerly devouring the ‘Hae Hawaii’ & their letters which I had brought” from Honolulu. Three days later, on the Sabbath, “The natives are quietly engaged in their room & read their testaments & the ‘Hae Hawaii’ all in a hubbub together.” See Judd, Guano Islands, 31, 35–36.
31. “He aina wela loa keia”; “ua nui ka wela o ka la, aole hiki ke nana poho ka maka”; “ka mea nui loa maanei.” Quoted passages from Kaluahine, “No na Aina Kukae Manu [Concerning the Guano Lands],” Ka Hae Hawaii, August 24, 1859; Kuhaloa, “He palapala mai ka mokupuni o Jarvis mai [A letter from the island of Jarvis],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 17, 1858; Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866. Workers’ clothing is described in Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima].” On guano “as white as snow,” see Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 658, 661. On “bronze” bodies, see Closson, “Under the Southern Cross,” 211.
32. “o ka ia like no me ko Hawaii.” Quote from Kuhaloa, “He palapala mai ka mokupuni o Jarvis mai [A letter from the island of Jarvis],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 17, 1858; Judd, Guano Islands, 37–38, 53. On fish species, Kuhaloa’s “Ulua-ulaula” translates literally as red trevally (ulua ʻulaʻula), although ʻulaʻula can also denote “sacred” or “royal” in addition to the color red. It is also possible that he refers to two separate species: ulua (trevally) and ʻulaʻula (red snapper). Manō refers to shark. Āholehole refers to young-stage Hawaiian flagtail. Albert Judd’s “Avai” does not correlate with any known Hawaiian fish. Manini is reef sturgeon. ʻUlaʻula is red snapper. Other useful accounts of Hawaiian laborers’ fishing practices are in “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, April 21, 1869; Judd, Guano Islands, 41, 46–47.
33. “ke hiki mai i ka wa kaiamaloo, ahu wale kepuleholeho eleele, opikopiko liilii a me kepuleholeho liilii keokeo a me kela ano keia ano pupu . . . he mau mea ia e hoopomaikai mai ana i ka noho ana o kanaka maanei”; “kuai aku la me na haole, loaa mai ia kahi awelu lole hana, ka paka, ipupaka, kukaepele, a me kekahi mau mea e ae no hoi kekahi e pono ai ka noho ana o kanaka.” Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Pua
kailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866.
34. Wm Chisholm to “Gentlemen,” February 5, 1863; P.W. Penhallow to “Esteemed o kind Friend,” May 30, 1863; William Chisholm to Capt[ain] Waterman, November 27, 1863; William Chisholm to D.C. Waterman, March 25, 1864, in D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. Emphases in the original. On the lack of fresh water, also see The Daily National Intelligencer (Washington, DC), May 4, 1857, and Daily Mercury (New Bedford, MA), May 15, 1857, both reprinted in Ward, American Activities, 1:193–98; Hague, “On the Phosphatic Guano Islands,” 3; “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, September 9, 1866 and June 20, 1869; Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 666; Skaggs, Great Guano Rush, 166. On failed efforts to grow food, see Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866.
35. “Aole makou i pilikia i na mea pono o ke kino, nui ka ai, me ka ia, me ka wai, a i na kanaka i ka ai a haalele, a me ka ia e haalele, inu hoomaunauna i ka wai e like me ia ma Honolulu nei.” Kaulainamoku, “No ka maikai o na Aina Kukaemanu o G.P. Judd [Concerning the well-being of the Guano Lands of G.P. Judd],” Ka Hae Hawaii, December 14, 1859.
36. “ua iini loa ka ikaika o na kanaka ma ka hana ana i ka lepo guano”; “hookahi wahi keiki”; “na mea kaumaha maanei me he mea ole la i na kanaka”; “he mea uwa ia ka poe malihini ikaika ole ke hele mai maanei”; “ua holo ka ikaika o na kanaka ma ka hana ana.” Quoted passages alternately from Kaulainamoku, “No ka maikai o na Aina Kukaemanu o G.P. Judd [Concerning the well-being of the Guano Lands of G.P. Judd],” Ka Hae Hawaii, December 14, 1859; and Kaulainamoku et al., “Mea hou ma Jarvis Island [News at Jarvis Island],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 9, 1859. On Hawaiian masculinity, see Ty P. Kāwika Tengan, “Re-membering Panalāʻau: Masculinities, Nation, and Empire in Hawaiʻi and the Pacific,” The Contemporary Pacific 20, no. 1 (2008): 27–53. On haole missionary interpretations of Hawaiian bodies, disease, and death, see Seth Archer, “Remedial Agents: Missionary Physicians and the Depopulation of Hawaiʻi,” Pacific Historical Review 79, no. 4 (November 2010): 513–44.
37. Kailiopio, “Mai Puakailima mai [From Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, December 23, 1865. On everyday acts of resistance, see William Chisholm to Capt[ain] Waterman, November 27, 1863, D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi; James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
38. “aole i like me ka noho ana o ka aina hanau . . . he ikiiki ka noho ana, o keia wahi aina, aohe loaa mai o ka wa oluolu kupono, a he nawaliwali ke kino, a he nui no hoi ka poe i mokio aku i ke ala hoi ole mai”; “auhea la hoi auanei ka malama pono ia o ke kanaka iloko o ka wa maimai”; “Haawi mai no ka haole i ka aila naha, a me ka paakai, a penikila no hoi”; “kipaku pu mai no hoi kekahi e hele no i ka hana.” Quoted passages from Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866. Wm Chisholm to D.C. Waterman, April 11, 1864, and Wm Chisholm to D.C. Waterman, June 28 [1864], in D.C. Waterman & Co. Business correspondence, Ms. Group 126, Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Library and Archives, Honolulu, Hawaiʻi; shipping article for United States Guano Co[mpany] (1868), Box 5, Folder 3, “Shipping Articles Jan-Dec 1868,” Harbormaster’s Shipping Articles, 1862–1900, Record Group 89, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu; “Seamen discharged before Harbor Master under the Act of June 25, 1855,” Volume 2, Oct 1853—Aug 1866, Collector General of Customs Seamen’s Records, Record Group 88, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
39. “ua pau kou ola i Honolulu.” Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866; “Various lists of Laborers paid off from Guano Islands,” Volume 2, Oct 1853—Aug 1866, Collector General of Customs Seamen’s Records, Record Group 88, Hawaiʻi State Archives, Honolulu.
40. Howland, “Howland Island,” 97, and passim. On frigatebirds and rats, see Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 665. On rats more generally, Hague, “On the Phosphatic Guano Islands,” 17–18; Judd, Guano Islands, 32; Skaggs, Great Guano Rush, 72, 167.
41. Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 663; Hugo H. Schauinsland, Three Months on a Coral Island [1899], trans. Miklos D.F. Udvardy, and published in I.G. MacIntyre, ed., Laysan Island and Other Northwest Hawaiian Islands: Early Science Reports with a Laysan Island Bibliography, Atoll Research Bulletin no. 432 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1996), 1–53, quote on 18–19. On boobies’ vomiting behavior, see Hague, “On the Phosphatic Guano Islands,” 15–16; Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 663.
42. “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, April 21, 1869. On human consumption of seabirds and eggs, see Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866; The Friend (Honolulu), March 31, 1857, and Pacific Commercial Advertiser (Honolulu), April 27, 1867, both reprinted in Ward, American Activities, 2:170–73, 552–57; Judd, Guano Islands, 31, 47, 50, 52–3; Closson, “Under the Southern Cross,” 211; Wight, Memoirs of Elizabeth Kinau Wilder, 127.
43. On animal introductions, see “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, September 9, 1866 and April 21, 1869; Closson, “Under the Southern Cross,” 211; Hague, “Our Equatorial Islands,” 665–66; Judd, Guano Islands, 10, 32, 38, 98; Skaggs, Great Guano Rush, 72, 166. On seabird nesting habitats, see Hague, “On the Phosphatic Guano Islands,” 15–16; Ward, American Activities, 5:473–82; Nelson, Seabirds, 118–31; Ziegler, Hawaiian Natural History, 297–98. On the destructive potential of introduced land mammals on nesting seabird populations, see Nelson, Seabirds, 203–6; Per Milberg and Tommy Tyrberg, “Naïve Birds and Noble Savages: a Review of Man-caused Prehistoric Extinctions of Island Birds,” Ecography 16 (1993): 229–50, esp. 233–34.
44. “ka Polikua a Kane”; “he manu ano like no kekahi ine ko Hawaii mau manu”; “o ka Ao, Kolea Ulili, Kioea a me ke Koae”; “Puni ka aina i ka manu”; “o ka Nueku waha hanalea pio ole i ke kuluaumoe, oia ka manu hanau nui.” Quoted passages from J. Kuhaloa, “He palapala mai ka mokupuni o Jarvis mai [A letter from the island of Jarvis],” Ka Hae Hawaii, November 17, 1858; Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866. Kailiopio’s “ka Polikua a Kane” appears to be a reference to the Kumulipo, the traditional Hawaiian creation chant. In the Kumulipo, the god Kāne is said to live at the Polikua (the unknowable world beyond the horizon), and the Polikua may also be where seabirds first came into being. See Martha Warren Beckwith, ed., The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation Chant (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 68–74. On the “Nueku” bird, see Kailiopio, “Moolelo o ka Mokupuni Baker’s Is. Puakailima [History of Baker’s Island/Puakailima],” Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, July 7, 1866; “Life on a Guano Island,” New York Times, April 21, 1869.
45. Andrews, Killing for Coal, 125. Also see David Steadman, “Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific Island birds,” Science 267 (1995): 1123–31; Milberg and Tyrberg, “Naïve Birds and Noble Savages”; Dirk H.R. Spennemann, “Excessive Exploitation of Central Pacific Seabird Populations at the Turn of the 20th Century,” Marine Ornithology 26 (1998): 49–57; Ziegler, Hawaiian Natural History, 251–60; Patrick V. Kirch, On the Road of the Winds: An Archeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 61. On the geological age of these islands, see U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reports for Baker, Jarvis, and Howland Islands, 4:7 for each report; also Ziegler, Hawaiian Natural History, 17–31; Safina, Eye of the Albatross, 46–48. On seabird evolution, see Nelson, Seabirds, 6–7.
CHAPTER FIVE. NAHOA’S TEARS
1. “He wahi manao hoakaka ka’u no ko’u poe ma ke kino eia no paha ke ola nei, aole paha, o ka walu
keia o na makahiki o ko’u noho ana ma Califonia nei, aole loaa mai o kahi palapala, owau ke kau aku i palapala na lakou, ua hiki aku paha aole paha, manao au ua pau i ka make.” R. Henry Nahoa, “He mea hoakaka na koʻu poe ma ke kino [A clarification for my people on the body],” Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858. The 1870 U.S. census lists Nahoa’s age as thirty, which if true means that he was born circa 1840. U.S. Department of the Interior, Census Office, 1870 Manuscript Census, Vernon Township, Sutter County, California, population schedule, p. 8, s.v. “Henry Mahoa,” familysearch.org, http://familysearch.org (accessed March 10, 2012).
2. “eia na inoa o lakou, o Maau ko’u kaikuahine, aia ma Lahaina kona wahi i noho ai, o Maikai he wahine ia, o ko laua wahi i noho ai, o Kapahumanamana, o Kaiwi ko’u makuakane, o Oloalu kona wahi noho, ke ola nei paha aole paha, ina ke ola nei oukou a pau. Aloha me ka waimaka, owau no nei o Nahoa ko keiki, kaikunane, mai hoohewahewa lakou, eia no au i Califonia nei, eia ma Irish Creek.” Nahoa, “He mea hoakaka na koʻu poe ma ke kino [A clarification for my people on the body],” Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858; “e pule ikaika i ke Akua i hiki ai ia ia ke kala ae i keia ukana kaumaha a makou.” B.E. Kamae, “No ke aloha o ka poe Kalifonia [Concerning the love of the California people],” Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858; S. Wahaulaula, “He wahi ukana kaumaha [A little heavy baggage],” Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858; Iosepa Opunui, letter to the editor, Ka Hae Hawaii, July 14, 1858.
3. On nineteenth-century lumpenproletarians, see Karl Marx, “The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte” [1852], in Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (2nd ed.; New York: W.W. Norton, 1978), 594–617; Seth Rockman, Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival in Early Baltimore (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2009). On the revolutionary potential of the lumpenproletariat, see Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth [1961] (New York: Grove Press, 2004), 63–96. On the limitations of this concept, see Mark Cowling, “Marx’s Lumpenproleriat and Murray’s Underclass: Concepts Best Abandoned?” in Marx’s Eighteenth Brumaire: (Post)modern Interpretations, ed. Mark Cowling and James Martin (Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 2002), 228–42. On deindustrialization in post–Gold Rush California, see Ian Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods: Californian-Australian Environmental Reform, 1860–1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
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