Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume 2

by Wm. Theodore de Bary

  In addition, many “little stories” were crowded in between the more elaborate creations, which were called “stories.” These included “Golden Buildings,” “Silver Sunshades,” “Solitary Dragon Colts,” “Stilt Walkers,” “Double StiltWalkers,” “The Son Pulls the Basket,”3 “Boats on Dry Land,” “Two Demons Fight Over a Bushel Basket,” and so on. The Golden Buildings and Silver Sunshades . . . had all sorts of women’s and children’s gold and silver jewelry hanging on them. As they were carried along, the natural movements of the bearers made the jewelry tinkle constantly, creating an extraordinarily attractive effect. . . .

  A troupe of ten or more musicians and a group of actors dressed as generals came next. There was one generalissimo wearing a commander’s helmet, green armor, a long beard, and court boots, accompanied by four bit players holding aloft fluttering banners. They rode five large horses that the acting troupe used to pull their costume and prop trunks. Behind these “generals” came the Golden Drum Banner, which had been sent by the yamen [the office of the local official]. Two yamen runners went before it, carrying big banners and beating gongs. . . .

  The Master of Ceremonial and all the other officiants came next, followed by the great carriage of the Sanzong God. The traveling image of the god had a clay head with gold headdress and a wooden body clothed in dragon robes. The god sat in an eight-man dragon palanquin whose seat was covered with real tiger skin. The god was red-faced and had a long beard; he held a plaque of office in his hands. (He had been carried to his temporary palace at the Flame Emperor Temple in the morning.) His title was “Illustrious State-Protecting Spiritual-Power-Bestowing King.” At the end of the procession there was a man carrying a yellow silk sunshade and another carrying a six-foot-long banner, red with black edges, on which were the words “Arbiter of Destiny of the Three Armies.”

  When the procession reached its destination, most of the “story” troupes took off their costumes at the foot of the outer stage. Only the musicians and the yamen runners who were crowded around the god’s palanquin entered the temple grounds.

  [Zhang Zhennan, “Yue ju yu sai,” pp. 249–52, supplemented by his “Yue ju he sai,” pp. 5–6, and his “Gu Shangdang minjian Ting shen sai she’ su gui”—DJ]

  TEMPLE CEREMONIES ON A GOD’S BIRTHDAY

  The heart of a village ceremonial, whether it was the celebration of a god’s birthday or the performance of a communal thanksgiving or exorcism, was a ritual program that was performed in and around a specific temple. Local custom, not ecclesiastical regulations, determined what happened at a given ritual, though if the ceremonies were presided over by Daoist or Buddhist clerics, at least part of the liturgy would follow canonical forms, some very old. But many local rituals were overseen by ritual specialists who were neither Daoist nor Buddhist. They were known by such terms as “master of ceremony” (zhuli), “ritual master” (lisheng), or even “yinyang master” (yinyang sheng), since they sometimes also functioned as geomancers and diviners. Some of them possessed handbooks containing the texts of the prayers, invocations, and announcements that were used in the rituals of the temple festival. Most of these handbooks have been lost, but over the past ten years a few have been discovered, and more will probably come to light as work on village ritual traditions proceeds. The following two selections are taken from these rare documents.

  THE GREAT SAI RITUAL OF ZHANGZI COUNTY, SHANXI

  The following address came at the formal beginning of the celebration of the birthday of the Sanzong God, whose procession was described in the preceding section. It was made by the Master of Ceremony to the villagers who had duties to perform during the ritual. The shê were precincts or neighborhoods.

  To the honored god, the Jade Emperor, Supreme Thearch of Vast Heaven: Today the individuals with responsibilities in the sai make obeisance before you at the foot of the steps. The preliminary courtesies are finished; let every rank listen to the commands [of the Jade Emperor]. Let no one dare act on his own authority; humbly wait to learn the god’s sagely intentions and receive the divine commands.

  The honored god, the Jade Emperor, Supreme Thearch, issues his decrees and instructions: Let all those in the hall and at the foot of the steps, before the god and behind the god, the greater and lesser Shê Leaders, the heads of the Six Offices and the Chefs, the Pavilioners, the Attendants, the Libationers, the Servers, the Monitors, the Umbrella Men, the Grooms, the Sunshade Handlers, the Incense Elders of the Left and Right, the Platter-Bearing Pavilioners, the responsible Musicians and Actors—let all proceed to the Cinnabar Courtyard in the temple to listen to the divine commands. Bow down and attend!

  I have heard that prayers in the spring and thanksgiving in the autumn, the sai in the summer and the sacrifices in the winter, have come down to us from ancient times. Today it is our good fortune to encounter the birthday of the honored god so-and-so. The rich mats have been spread, the umbrellas have been opened and turned. The sagely host of August Heaven has been respectfully invited to draw near the precious hall; all the gods of Sovereign Earth have descended to the incense altar. The chief Shê Leader stands respectfully in the front, all the Incense Elders are deeply reverent. Now I proclaim to you:

  . . . Today the Shê Leaders so-and-so humbly and reverently make an offering in recompense for the favor of Heaven’s rain and dew. [Heaven] bestows the clouds and sends the rain, and the winds that blow over all the lands. Sowing and reaping are moistened with rain, the five kinds of soil bring forth the five grains, the grasses and trees of the hills and streams flourish, the gardens and groves are verdant, all because the wind and rain have come when they should, and the yin and yang are in balance. So the people have hope for an autumn harvest, on which life depends. Without thought of personal gain they requite the gods of Heaven and Earth; they sacrifice with sincere hearts.

  On the occasion of the god’s birthday we respectfully invite all his subordinates to smell the incense and listen to the music. . . . The Rites [actually Analects 12.1] say: “See nothing without ritual, hear nothing without ritual, speak nothing without ritual, do nothing without ritual.” These four are the ritual of man.

  Wine takes pride of place: presented to kinfolk and nourishing the old, an offering to the gods, used to welcome visitors and entertain guests—how could one not have it? Warm it and let it clear, [but do not] drink to excess.

  In the villages and hamlets, . . . there are neither poor nor rich, noble nor base; farmers yield on the paths between fields, travelers yield on the roads, the young make way for the old, and the poor make way for the noble. . .. Act with goodness, do not take up what is evil. The good shun [evil] as they would snakes and scorpions.

  I proclaim and inform all the gentlemen of the shê: how can you not know your own hearts? Endure all things, do not offend even in the slightest. For those who lose their grasp on proper measure and take up evil ways, the honored god will send down heavy punishment.

  The text then goes on to exhort each of the groups of officiants in turn, starting with the Shê Leaders.

  [Tang yuexing tu, pp. 2–6—DJ]

  COMMUNAL EXORCISM

  The sai, like all temple-based rituals, expressed the village’s devotion and gratitude toward their god. Its tone for the most part was dignified and elevated. There were other communal ceremonials that had a different purpose and a different tone: exorcisms. We can speak of two poles of popular religious ritual, the conventional and the ecstatic, and two dominant forms, sacrifice and exorcism, though very few actual ceremonies were purely one or the other. The difference between the following ritual and the sai is visible above all in the central role of the spirit-medium and in the atmosphere of barely contained hysteria. The liturgy has moments of considerable beauty, but the great bed of red-hot coals at the center of the ritual arena created a very different emotional ambience from a god’s birthday. (Note, however, that this was an annual affair, unlike many communal exorcisms, which were performed at moments when the community felt especi
ally threatened by demonic forces.)

  THE REFINING FIRE RITUAL OF SHENZE VILLAGE, ZHEJIANG

  The Refining Fire, or Fire of Great Peace, is a great exorcistic, protective, and healing ritual featuring fire-walking that is performed in Shenze village, in central Zhejiang, every year on the ninth day of the ninth month. The central deity is Duke Hu, a native of the area who was an official early in the Song dynasty. This selection is based on documents collected in Shenze and on the report of an observer of a performance of the ritual in 1992. The ceremony began in early evening with the consecration of the altars surrounding the ritual arena, where the fire would be built. At the outset the priest chanted and sang the Liturgy for Issuing the Great Notification. Its opening section calls on the gods of the Daoist pantheon to take note of the commencement of the ritual and the pure intentions of those on whose behalf the priest is carrying it out.

  The Great Ultimate divided Heaven from Earth,

  And the light and pure ascended to assemble in Heaven.

  Men are able to cultivate the Ultimate Way,

  Themselves becoming true immortals. . . .

  Bowing, we let the smoke of the hundred-harmonied precious incense

  Wreathe through six terraces, powerfully fragrant.

  We burn it in the golden censer,

  Spreading it throughout the Jade Bureau.

  The auspicious mist ascends to make a terrace,

  The propitious clouds spread out to form a cover.

  The incense communicates the supplications of earnest hearts;

  It reaches to the wondrous gate of the myriad sages.

  Today we thrice offer incense,

  Announcing the commands everywhere.

  Hearts resolved, we make the first offering of incense.

  Its fragrance arrives at the Palace of Primeval Chaos;

  Everywhere throughout the Palace of the Three Realms of Primeval Chaos

  It becomes the flowery covering, an offering

  To the Reverences of the Three Realms of Primeval Chaos.

  Hearts resolved, we make the second offering of incense.

  Its fragrance arrives at the Palace of the Heavenly Caverns. . . .

  Hearts resolved, we make the third offering of incense.

  Its fragrance arrives at the Palace of the Profound Font. . . .

  Next comes the “Incense Hymn,” sung softly to the accompaniment of drums:

  . . . Misty in the morning sun the incense smoke forms a cover,

  Turning about in the wind to transmit the sentiments of the people.

  To the marvelous fragrance before the Jade Throne, I now intone the precious gāthā:

  The jade censer’s propitious mists ascend to form the cloud canopy,

  The auspicious smoke of the cavern altar gathers at the precious terrace.

  The Golden Lad gently grasps and offers up the garu and sandalwood incense;

  The Jade Maiden transmits and recites [the memorial] to inform the Three Realms.

  This precious censer now summons,

  The Numinous Officials of the Four Shifts all descend and draw near.

  Pure feeling moves those on high, reaching the three realms,

  Where officials of Heaven, Earth, and Water are moved like reflections in a mirror.

  Next, the “Water Gāthā” is intoned, during which the chanting of the priest gradually increases in volume and becomes more excited:

  . . . Yielding in accord with the vast expanse, the numinous spring

  Flows into the great river day and night without stopping,

  Dissolving into the vast sky as rain and fog,

  Finally returning to the billowing surf of the great ocean.

  Perfecting merit and permeating without limit,

  Of corresponding quality, Heaven and Earth exist of themselves;

  The Five Phases take it as their chief,

  The Six Bureaus revere it as immortal.

  Desiring purification of this ritual assembly,

  We intone the Water Gāthā :

  The Five Dragons spit forth the water of the Jasper Pool,

  It goes to the cinnabar well of the old immortal.

  The Great Emperor has depended on it for hundreds of billions of years,

  King Yu transformed it into the Hundred Rivers.

  My hands grasp the heavenly treasure seal.

  I hold it to draw from the violet and golden spring.

  One drop can disperse the beneficence of the rain and fog,

  And spread everywhere throughout the ritual assembly, purifying and cleansing.

  At the climax of the Refining Fire ritual the spirit-medium and selected villagers walk across a large circular bed of red-hot charcoal. Before they can cross the coals, however, the specially constructed gates occupying the cardinal points around the Fire Altar must be opened, activating the cosmic forces that protect the participants from injury. The priest sounds the Dragon Horn, strikes his drum, and wields his sword as he begins the “Opening of the Water-Fire Gates.” The interchanges between the crowd, the priest, and the spirit-medium in the following sections have been strongly influenced by the conventions of local opera.

  The Dragon Horn has sounded, and its notes rise soaring up to Heaven.

  The Heavenly soldiers and spirit generals will all arrive together.

  At the first summons the Heavenly Gate opens,

  At the second summons the Buddha Dharma comes,

  At the third summons the patriarchs arrive in person,

  At the fourth summons the four great Diamond Kings appear before us,

  At the fifth summons the five Thunder Generals issue orders as if they are right here,

  At the sixth summons the Six Ding and Six Jia appear before our eyes,

  At the seventh summons the seven stars of the Northern Dipper come to safeguard the spirits,

  At the eighth summons the Eight Immortals decapitate the demons,

  At the ninth summons the troops and cavalry of the Nine Continents arrive,

  At the tenth summons, the Great Emperor Duke Hu comes to preside over the altar.

  The troop-mustering First Master descends and draws nigh,

  And refines the merit-making Water-Fire Altar.

  Priest [speaks]: Assembled headman generals!

  Participants [speak]: Here!

  Priest: Who will lead the ocean troops and ocean cavalry?

  Participants: We will lead the ocean troops and ocean cavalry!

  Priest: Assembled generals!

  Participants: Here!

  Priest: Lead forth the troops and ocean cavalry!

  Participants: We will lead forth the ocean troops and ocean cavalry!

  Priest: What will determine it?

  Participants: Thrice [casting] the divination blocks will determine it!

  Priest: Thrice cast the divination blocks!

  After the divining blocks are cast, the priest leads the crowd of “generals” in a number of circumambulations of the Altar of Heaven and performs rituals at the four gates to seal off the sacred space. The spirit-medium and the participants assemble at the altar, barefoot and clad only in red shorts. As the trident bearers and other participants start to tremble and twitch, two gong bearers take up places on either side of the spirit-medium. He too starts to writhe and twitch as the two large gongs are beaten violently close to his ears. Then, when his entire body is jerking about violently in a state of extreme agitation, he calms slightly, changes demeanor, and leaps up onto the offering table of the Altar of Heaven. Looking down over the crowd, he announces himself as Duke Hu.

  Spirit-medium: Striding the cloud tops, gazing over the Nine Realms—assembled families and headmen, for what reason do you block the way of my steed with the continuous beating of drums and gongs?

  Crowd: To aid you, Duke Hu, in one round of the Refining Fire of Great Peace.

  Spirit-medium: Excellent! When I get to a subdistrict, I protect the subdistrict; when I get to a village, I protect the village.
I bless the entire village so that the six domestic animals flourish, the five grains are harvested in abundance, the winds are mild and the rains seasonable, the country prosperous and the people at peace. I assist the yeoman tillers so that when they till the fields, the fields produce grain; so that when they till the hillsides, the hillsides produce millet. I assist the merchant gentlemen so that one coin in capital yields ten thousand in interest. I assist the gentlemen in their prime, like tigers leaping and dragons soaring, so that they may be as strong as dragons and tigers. I assist the elderly so that with ruddy complexion and white hair they turn from age and return to youth. I assist the young boys in studying their books and composing verse so that their names will be posted on the golden roll [of those who have passed the examinations]. I assist the young maidens so that they may be clever and bright, like peach blossoms in a painting.

  Crowd: Many thanks for your lordship’s blessing!

  Spirit-medium: Assembled families and brethren, those in front and those in the back, do not contend for the front or dread the rear; I’ll take you together on my mount. Headmen, assist me by sounding the gongs to open the way!

  Crowd: Here!

  As the gongs sound, the spirit-medium takes up the charm-water bowl from the offering table, fills his mouth, and sprays the water out over the increasingly agitated crowd of villagers. He sprays a second time, and the crowd becomes more agitated: the spirits are descending. With the third mouthful they too are possessed and jump about violently. The spirit-medium picks up a length of iron chain from the altar table and, grasping one end with each hand, swings it over his head three times while facing the spirit tablets, then passes it down to the throng below. He repeats this procedure with a second chain, the incense burner, and a pitchfork. Finally, he grabs the charm-water bowl, leaps down from the offering table and, following the lead of the incense master, races around the Fire Altar. Arriving at the eastern Water-Fire Gate, the spirit-medium takes another mouthful from the charm-water bowl and sprays it on the fire, after which he stamps his bare foot in the coals, indicating that the gate is opened for the participants to pass through. This procedure is repeated at each of the other gates. Then the spirit-medium, followed by the villagers, strides across the coals, entering through the northern gate and exiting through the southern, then entering through the western gate and exiting through the eastern. Two or three passes through the fire is considered one “hall”; after three halls have been completed, the ritual is declared a success. Throughout this phase the onlookers are cheering wildly while gongs and drums sound incessantly.