Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume 2

by Wm. Theodore de Bary

  Wei’s general thesis in the Gazetteer is this: the Western barbarians, bent on power and profit, have devised techniques and machines by which to subvert or conquer the civilized world. China, dedicated as she is to virtue, learning, and the ways of peace, possesses a spiritual and moral strength that can yet triumph over the enemy if only the Chinese awaken to the danger and apply themselves to the practical problems involved. Traditional military science suggests that the first requisite is intelligence of the enemy—of his strengths and weaknesses. The second requisite is to match these strengths and exploit the weaknesses. If the natural abilities of the Chinese are devoted to the study and adoption of Western military methods, and there is not too great an impatience with the achievement of immediate results, the time will come when China can reassert itself. In the meantime, it should seek to exploit the prime weakness of the West—its inherent disunity, which derives from the lack of a common moral basis and consequent anarchy of selfish ambitions among the nations. To play the Western powers off against one another is then the obvious strategy.

  Despite the violent and contemptuous tone of his language, Wei is careful to state that his is a policy valid for either war or peace. He admits the possibility that China’s military preparations may not enable her soon to resist or attack the West. Peace negotiations could prove necessary again, as they were in the Opium War. Yet a policy of playing the Western powers off against each other, while gaining time for reform and strengthening within, would be appropriate even in these circumstances.

  Wei’s Illustrated Gazetteer of the Maritime Countries was reprinted many times, expanded, and supplemented. Japanese editions of this work and Wei’s Military History came to the attention of the samurai reformer Sakuma Shozan, who spoke of Wei as a “comrade in another land.” Sakuma also commented, however, that in practical matters like gunnery Wei lacked firsthand experience and his information was often inaccurate.19

  Thus Wei’s approach to the problem of national defense may be said to reflect his Confucian concern for the state, a more realistic estimate of Western power, and the Qing scholar’s penchant for works of compilation based on critical, though not necessarily empirical, research. He had neither the opportunity, nor perhaps the inclination, to take up the practical art of war, which in the past had proven so uncongenial to Chinese Confucian tastes.

  PREFACE TO MILITARY HISTORY OF THE QING DYNASTY (SHENGWU JIXU), 1842

  This preface indicates Wei Yuan’s considerable emphasis on state power as manifested in wealth and military strength. At the same time, seeking to rouse the emperor and his ministers to action, Wei appeals to traditional Confucian moral sentiments, wherein all problems are seen as fundamentally reducible to the need for men of ability and firm will, inspired by classic ideals. It begins with an autobiographical sketch, relating the major events of his times to his own reactions to such events.

  In my later years, I have lived between the Yangzi and the Huai Rivers and have frequently been disturbed by alarms from the sea and reports of war. With the sensitivity I have accumulated over the years, I can only sigh over the recent news. I have therefore opened up my files of historical sources, arranged them chronologically and topically, and gone over them many times. The sources touching on military matters as well as my comments on them are herewith presented in fourteen chapters, a total of more than 400,000 words. The work is completed in the same month [August 1842] that the maritime barbarians [i.e., the British] have accepted the peace agreement in Nanjing. . . .

  Now the state is not poor when there is a deficit in its finances, it is poor when vigorous and competitive talents are wanting. The state is not weak when its decrees are not obeyed abroad, but the state is weak when its decrees are not obeyed within its own territories. Therefore the former kings did not worry about revenues but regarded human talent as the urgent matter. They did not worry about their will being thwarted by the barbarians from all directions, but they did worry about their will being thwarted anywhere within the realm. When its officials are all chosen from among human talents, the wealth of the state is assured; when none of its decrees are disregarded within its territories, the state’s power is enhanced. When the state is rich and powerful, it will be effective—it deals with the traitors and they will not persist in their ways; it administers revenue and [the revenue] will not be wasted; it acquires weapons and they will not be flawed; it organizes armed forces and the troops will not be under strength. What then is there to fear about barbarians anywhere—what is there to worry about as to defense against aggression? . . .

  In the Record of Rites it is said, “Humiliation stimulates effort; when the country is humiliated, its spirit will be aroused.”20 This is why ancient sovereigns who inherited realms that had long seen peace and security would realize that their own pronouncements were irreversible. Inspiring fear, they issued military commands so as to strengthen the morale of all-under-Heaven. In a munificent manner, they gave out military provisions to attract the talents of all-under-Heaven. With talents advanced, military affairs are in good order. When the morale of the people is stern, the state inspires great awe. When the sovereign is pleased, it will be spring in all the four seas; when he is angry, it will be autumn. The Five Senses [those of ears, eyes, mouth, nose, and heart-and-mind] are strong, and the Five Weapons [knife, sword, spear, lance, and bow and arrow] are in good supply. Prohibitions and decrees are strictly followed, and barbarians from all directions come to pay tribute to the sovereign. . . . It is thus that the later sages learn from the early sages, and later kings learn from the early kings. To learn from early sages and early kings—the closest to achieving this were our great and heroic early emperors [of the Qing dynasty]. The Classic of Documents says, “Have in good order also your military accoutrements and weapons, so that you may go forth beyond the steps of Yu, and be able to travel over all the realm, even beyond the seas, everywhere meeting with submission—so shall you display the bright glory of King Wen and render more illustrious the great achievements of King Wu.”21

  I therefore am daring enough to present this military history of the sacred Qing dynasty, with folded hands and bowing my head to the ground.

  [Wei Yuan ji v. 1, pp. 166–168—KCL]

  PREFACE TO ILLUSTRATED GAZETTEER OF THE MARITIME COUNTRIES (HAIGUO TUZHI)

  In the preface to his work, Wei, characteristically for the Qing scholar, starts with a discussion of the sources he has drawn upon. Then he explains the nature and purposes of the work and provides a conspectus of the contents, chapter by chapter. The whole is in a highly rhetorical style, replete with classical allusions and the usual assumptions in regard to Chinese cultural superiority.

  The present work, Illustrated Gazetteer of the Maritime Countries, contains sixty chapters. Upon what is it based? It is based, on the one hand, upon the Gazetteer of the Four Continents, which was translated by Lin [Zexu], former governor-general of Guangdong and Guangxi, and, on the other hand, upon the histories and gazetteers of different previous dynasties, and the different series of Island Gazetteers published since the Ming period, and also upon many barbarian atlases and books published in recent years. They were brought together, and thoroughly searched. Many difficulties had to be worked out in order that this pioneer work might be published.

  At a rough estimate, about 80 percent of the source materials used in this book covering the Southeastern Ocean [Southeast Asia] and the Southwestern Ocean [South and West Asia] and about 60 percent covering the Great Western Ocean [Western Europe], the Little Western Ocean [North Africa], the Northern Ocean [Russia and Eastern Europe], and the Outer Great Western Ocean [North and South America] are new materials supplementing the original [Lin’s] book covering the same areas. They are also illustrated with maps, tables, and diagrams. A variety of opinion from different schools is presented in the interests of broad coverage.

  In what respect does this work differ from the gazetteers of earlier writers? The answer is that those earlier works all desc
ribed the West as it appeared to Chinese writers, while this book describes the West as it appears to Westerners.

  What is the purpose of the present work? Its purpose is to show how to use barbarians to fight barbarians, how to make the barbarians pacify one another [to our advantage], and how to employ the techniques of the barbarians in order to bring the barbarians under control. . . . In ancient times those who succeeded in driving off the barbarians knew the enemy’s position as clearly as if it were spread out upon their own desk or carpet; they were informed of the enemy’s condition as intimately as if the enemy were dining or sleeping with them.

  With this book in hand, then, will it be possible to drive off the barbarians?

  Perhaps so, perhaps not. This book provides only military tactics, not the basic strategy. It provides the tangible means for making war, but not the intangible ones. . . .

  Our present emperor, His Majesty, is benevolent and diligent. His virtue matches that of His ancestors. The operations of Heaven in time and of man through his own efforts are conjoined for our advantage. Why should we fear that the time is not ripe for extermination of the barbarians; why should we fear that there may be no chance to show our might? Thus all of our courageous people must show their eagerness for the achievement of such a task, and anyone who has not lost his senses must devise some means for its accomplishment. Away with hypocrisy! Away with all window dressing! Away with the dread of difficulty! Away with the nurturing of internal evils and the tolerating of private gain at the expense of the public interest! Then the minds of men will be aroused from their ignorant lethargy.

  First of all, through practical projects we must advance practical effort; and through practical effort advance practical projects. . . . We must not try to drown ourselves in the river merely to show our heroism, nor must we try to appease our hunger by drawing picture-cakes. Then we shall no longer be plagued by a dearth of men with practical abilities.

  Second, once we are rid of our ignorant lethargy, the sun will shine more brightly in the sky; once the dearth of men with practical abilities is remedied, government orders will be carried out with the speed of wind and lightning. . . .

  Defensive measures may serve offensive purposes as well as purposes of peaceful negotiation. Use the barbarians to control the barbarians, so that all our borders may be strongly held. Thus the first section of this book deals with maritime defense.

  Down through three thousand years [of world history], over the ninety thousand li of the world’s circumference, both vertically in time and horizontally in space, with geographical charts and historical data, the second section presents a general survey of historical and territorial changes for all nations in the world.

  Neither the barbarian religion nor the barbarian opium can penetrate the borders of our vassal states [to the south]. Alas, that they can show their will to resist [while we cannot]. So the third section deals with the nations along the coast of the Southeastern Ocean [i.e., Indochina, Thailand, and so on].

  The Isles of Luzon and Java [i.e., the Philippines and Indonesia] are equal in extent to Japan, but they are either encroached upon or absorbed [by the Western barbarians]. Taking heed of the overturned cart ahead [to avert a similar disaster for ourselves], the fourth section deals with the Isles of the Southeastern Ocean [Southeastern Asia].

  The religion has been changed three times [Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam] and the land cut into Five Regions. The magpies’ nest is now occupied by the turtledoves,22 which are also a threat to China. This fifth section deals with India.

  Both whites and blacks are from remote and isolated areas. They are forced to serve as a vanguard, collaborating with the seafarers of the West. This sixth section deals with North Africa of the Little Western Ocean.

  The western part of the Mediterranean Sea is inhabited by many barbarian tribes, who cherish only profit and power, and indeed are as treacherous as the owls. This seventh section deals with the European countries in the Great Western Ocean.

  Her [Russia’s] tail lies in the East and her head in the West; her northern borders extend to the sea of ice. If we make alliances with the nearby countries in order to attack those afar, she may be our friend in a land war. This eighth section deals with Russia in the Northern Ocean. [In this section Wei sets forth his hope that Russia may distract England by invading India. In the next he suggests that the United States would be a natural ally in naval warfare.]

  It has effectively resisted the violent invasion of the English barbarians and faithfully guarded the central plain. If we make alliances with those afar, in order to attack those nearby, it may be of assistance in a sea war. This ninth section deals with the United States in the Outer Great [Western] Ocean.

  Every man has Heaven as his source; religious teachings derive from the sages. Though the different teachings meet and part, agree and disagree, they are all orderly and logical. The tenth section deals with religions of the Western nations.

  It is China alone that embraces ten thousand li under one sovereignty. In contrast with one another and unconnected are Europe and Arabia. This eleventh section presents a chronological table of events in China and the West.

  The Chinese calendar has been supplemented by the Western; the Western calendar differs from the Chinese. As a guide for the people in their seasonal labors, ours takes the place of honor. This twelfth section presents a table of similarities and differences between the Chinese and the Western calendars.

  In war topography is of first importance, however remote and wild the region. By the gathering of supplies and sketching of plans, a war can be won in the office. This thirteenth section presents a general survey of geographical conditions in each country.

  Topography, important though it be, is nothing compared to cooperation among men. Surprise tactics and orthodox strategy are to be used according to circumstances, so that there will be the least expenditure of force and a maximum of concerted planning. This fourteenth section presents a program for controlling the barbarians.

  Knowing one’s own plans and being familiar with those of the enemy, one may judge whether to wage war or negotiate peace. Without knowing the right medicine, how can one cure the disease of shortsightedness and stupidity? The fifteenth section offers a compilation of data on the barbarian situation.

  Maritime warfare depends upon warships, as land warfare depends upon battlements. Without mastering the best techniques, how can the stormy seas be tamed? The sixteenth section presents a detailed discussion of warships.

  The Five Phases are able to subdue one another. Among them metal and fire are the most fierce. A thunder blast from the earth can serve both offensive and defensive purposes. The seventeenth section presents a detailed discussion of firearms and their use in warfare.

  The languages and conveyances of different peoples are not the same, but their currencies are similar. To make skillful use of them, one must make the utmost use of one’s intelligence. The eighteenth section deals with [Western] currency, goods, and contrivances.

  This preface is written by Wei Yuan of Shaoyang, Secretary to the Cabinet, on the twelfth moon of the twenty-second year of Daoguang (February 1843) at Yangzhou.

  [From original preface, Haiguo tuzhi, 1a-6b]

  1. The Beijing Gazette (Chaobao or Jingbao), published in Beijing, contained transcripts of correspondence between the court and its officials regarding current conditions and policy.

  2. This refers presumably to clerks at the Board of Civil Office, who expected gifts from local officials serving a considerable length of time.

  3. Legge, The Chinese Classics, 4: 342.

  4. Legge, The Chinese Classics, 4: 250.

  5. Waley, Songs, no. 108.

  6. The term consensus of many (zhongyi), which occurs at least as early as Western Han times, was later used by constitution writers to refer to a representative assembly, particularly the lower house in a bicameral legislature.

  7. Waley, Songs, no. 183.

  8. Waley, Songs,
no. 195.

  9. Waley, Songs, no. 290.

  10. A section of the Classic of Documents (Shujing). See vol. 1, ch. 2.

  11. Allusion to the Western Inscription of Zhang Zai (ch. 20).

  12. Analects 9: 30; Waley, The Analects of Confucius, p. 145.

  13. Legge, The Chinese Classics, 4: 334.

  14. Reference to a famous saying by Fan Zhongyan; see ch. 22.

  15. Cf. Legge, The Chinese Classics, 4: 511.

  16. Reference to the opening passage of Mencius, vol. 1, ch. 6.