Heads Up Sociology

by DK

  Harold Garfinkel (1917–2011)

  US sociologist Harold Garfinkel was the founder of ethnomethodology: a way of studying society that focuses on how people connect to each other with language, gestures, and behaviour. His most famous work Studies in Ethnomethodology (1967) is based on a wide range of first-hand observations. Garfinkel’s ideas are now part of mainstream sociology.

  Anthony Giddens (1938–)

  Erving Goffman (1922–1982)

  The work of Canadian–American sociologist Erving Goffman is most closely associated with the Chicago School of Symbolic Interactionism. This is a school of thought that likens the way we behave socially to a play acted out on stage. In our everyday lives, we perform “roles”, which we modify according to what is going on around us. The result is that social life appears predictable and well directed: for example, we expect a patient in hospital to act like a sick person. Goffman’s work includes The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956), Asylums (1961), and Stigma (1963).

  Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937)

  The Italian political activist Antonio Gramsci was a Marxist communist. In 1926, he was imprisoned by the Italian Fascist Party, allegedly for being involved in an attempt to murder the Fascist leader, Benito Mussolini. While in prison, Gramsci devised his theory of “cultural hegemony”. This refers to the way dominant social groups, the ruling classes, manipulate the values of society to make their own ideas look like “common sense”. Any protests, for example, saying banks charge too much, are dismissed as “nonsense”. Gramsci’s ideas, communicated to friends in letters sent from prison, were first published in 1957, 20 years after Gramsci died from ill health shortly after being released.

  Stuart Hall (1932–2014)

  Born in Jamaica, Stuart Hall, was one of Britain’s most influential sociologists and theorists. His work covered many different areas but he emphasized the complex experiences of being black and British, and the various ways in which racism operated in British society. Culture was another interest of his, and he led what became known as “The Birmingham School” of research into how young people made sense of their lives by creating subcultures around music and style.

  Arlie Hochschild (1940–)

  bell hooks (1952–)

  African–American feminist Gloria Jean Watkins gave herself the pen name of bell hooks (which she chose to spell with lower case letters). She felt strongly that the feminism of the 1970s and 1980s did not take into account the special situation of black women or really understand how class made a difference to women’s experiences. bell hooks helped to develop the concept of “intersectionality”. This emphasized that women’s oppression is not just gender-based but must also take account of race and class.

  Bruno Latour (1947–)

  French philosopher and sociologist Bruno Latour is best known for what is called his “actor-network” theory. His basic idea is that our everyday life is made up of interactions (or networks) between people, and that without such networks nothing would happen. Bruno claims that networks include technology, which is just as important as people in creating society.

  Henri Lefebvre (1901–1991)

  French sociologist Henri Lefebvre studied the way cities work and how urban space is defined by control and conflict. In his 1991 book, The Production of Space, he outlines how capitalist societies like to treat space as a commercial product, and ordinary people attempt to resist this. Lefebvre believed that everyone has a “right to the city”, which requires a radical approach to take power away from the establishment and social elites.

  Michael Löwy (1938–)

  Born in Brazil before moving to work in France, Michael Löwy is best known for his writings on Marx and Marxist theory. He champions a romantic critique of capitalism, saying that we need visions of a better future world, built with some of the best aspects of society, such as cooperation, before capitalism took over.

  Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998)

  German theorist Niklas Luhmann wanted to know how societies operate. He developed “systems theory”, which says that society is made up of different social systems such as the law, education, the economy, politics, and so on. He claimed that each system only really understands wider society in its own terms. For example, the economic system sees everything in terms of money. This, said Luhmann, causes friction as the systems clash against each other.

  Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979)

  German–American Herbert Marcuse was associated with a group of Marxist scholars known as the Frankfurt School. He spent his academic career trying to work out how consumerism affected people. He claimed that it created false needs (to own a new car, for example) rather than real desires to care for others and to improve the society in which we live.

  Karl Marx (1818–1883)

  Helga Nowotny (1937–)

  One of Austria’s leading sociologists, Helga Nowotny has written extensively on the sociology of science and technology, exploring how society affects science and science affects sociology. She is also interested in the sociology of time and how ideas of time are constructed by different societies in different ways. She discusses this in Time – The Modern and Postmodern Experience (1989).

  Ann Oakley (1944–)

  A prominent British sociologist and feminist Ann Oakley’s work highlights the view that domestic household chores undertaken by women should be regarded as work just as much as paid work that takes place outside the home. In her classic study The Sociology of Housework (1974), Oakley argues that housework is one of the many ways that women and their labour are exploited in a male-dominated society. Ann Oakley is also a successful novelist.

  George Owusu

  The rapid changes in the urban environment of his native Ghana have formed the basis of George Owusu’s research. What he reveals is the need to go beyond what western societies understand about personal space and ownership. African societies need their own models of urban life that, for example, put issues of identity and kinship above economic considerations. George Owusu currently teaches at the University of Ghana.

  Ray Pahl (1935–2011)

  British sociologist Ray Pahl pointed out that work is not just something people are paid to do in an office or workplace but also occurs as unpaid arrangements between friends and in the wider community. His breakthrough work was an in-depth study of the working arrangements on the Isle of Sheppey, UK. In the later part of his career, Pahl focused on friendship and the way people maintained connections in a fragmented and challenging world.

  Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)

  US sociologist Talcott Parsons was associated with a form of sociology we know as structural functionalism. The basic idea of this is that in order to achieve a stable society everyone must play a part in keeping social order. The key is socialization: learning how to behave in an acceptable way.

  Robert D. Putnam (1941–)

  US sociologist Robert Putnam is best known for a concept that he called “social capital“, which he brought to popular attention in his book Bowling Alone, published in 2000. Broadly speaking, he claims that societies work best when people feel and maintain close bonds of community. Putnam believes that the more ties people have with others the better the chances of societies enjoying good health, low levels of crime, and all-round happiness.

  Alberto Guerreio Ramos (1915–1982)

  Guerrio Ramos was a strong critic of the way that sociological studies in his native Brazil did nothing to improve the lives of minority groups among the population. The lack of solutions to the problems many people faced inspired his thoughts on what makes a good society. He saw that society was too complicated to be seen in terms of one thing, such as production or consumption of goods, or the availability of money.

  Adrienne Rich (1929–2012)

  US academic Adrienne Rich was a feminist poet and essayist. Her work examines how gay and lesbian people are sidelined and stigmatized in society. Rich thought that the idea of heterosexuality is forced upon us, either directly
through what people say, or through the way sexuality is portrayed in popular culture, for example, in books, films, and newspapers.

  George Ritzer (1940–)

  US sociologist George Ritzer argues that many aspects of everyday life are increasingly being organized like a fast-food burger chain. By this he means that everything is becoming the same and we get exactly what we expect. This makes life dull, because there are no surprises, and any sense of excitement or something different happening is lost.

  Hartmut Rosa (1965–)

  Rosa’s work draws on fellow German Karl Marx’s ideas of alienation, the feeling of being distanced from life because we have no control over it. He argues that modern society now moves so fast that people struggle, in what seems like less and less time, to keep on top of all the demands made of them. The result is a sense of not being able to find our true selves and do the things we want to.

  Edward Said (1935–2003)

  A Palestinian–American, Edward Said explored the experiences of peoples who had been made colonies of Europe and America. His key text Orientalism was published in 1978 and dealt with how western culture misrepresented people in the East as being somehow feeble and inferior.

  Saskia Sassen (1949–)

  Andrew Sayer (1949–)

  British sociologist Andrew Sayer’s best known work is The Moral Significance of Class (2005), which considers ethical and moral issues to do with inequality. Sayer is interested in the ways class shapes how people think about and value themelves and others, as well as the relationship between social class and morality.

  Richard Sennett (1943–)

  Writing on a wide range of topics, US sociologist Richard Sennett has explored what he sees as the damaging effects of capitalism on the lives of ordinary people. One of his most important claims is that capitalism has drained life of meaning. Sennett thinks this is especially true in the workplace, where modern management styles prevent employees from gaining job satisfaction and a sense of their own worth.

  Georg Simmel (1858–1918)

  German sociologist Georg Simmel based his work on small-scale observations of everyday life: how people walked and talked and moved around the city. He was fascinated to see how urban living shaped people’s awareness of their surroundings. Simmel’s work laid the foundations for urban sociology and studies of the ways in which people communicate and interact.

  Boaventura de Sousa Santos (1940–)

  Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936)

  One of the world’s first sociologists, the German Ferdinand Tönnies tried to understand the fast-moving and dramatic changes he witnessed in the society of his day. What especially interested him was how the expansion of urban life was altering the traditional bonds people had with each other. He identified the tension between the Gemeinschaft (community) of rural life with the Gessellschaft (association) of urban life.

  Bryan S. Turner (1945–)

  Born in England, Turner has lived all over the world, and has taught in universities in Europe, Asia, the United States, and Australia. The sociological topics he has tackled cover everything from how we think about our bodies, from a cultural as well as a biological point of view, to the way in which religions have been transformed by modern society.

  Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929)

  A Norwegian–American, Thorstein Veblen was one of the first sociologists to try and get to grips with what today we call consumer culture: a society in which our values and lifestyles are shaped by the purchase and use of goods and services. He noted how people tried to imitate the consumer habits of the wealthier members of society as a way of raising their own social status, for which he coined the expression “conspicuous consumption”.The term “Veblen goods” is used to describe goods for which demand increases the more expensive they become.

  Löic Wacquant (1960–)

  The increase in the numbers of people being imprisoned has been at the centre of Löic Wacquant’s work, both in his home country of France and in the US. He argues that crowded jails actually have nothing to do with rising crime. Instead, Wacquant believes that imprisonment is being used as a way of oppressing certain ethnic minority groups and people on the margins of society.

  Sylvia Walby (1953–)

  Prominent British feminist sociologist Sylvia Walby has done much research into the effects of patriarchy (male power) in society. She identified patriarchy in six spheres of life: in culture, the workplace, politics, sexuality, the law, and in violence against women. Walby has worked for UNESCO in developing policies to promote gender equality on a global level.

  Max Weber (1864–1920)

  Charles Wright Mills (1916–1962)

  Sharon Zukin

  The city has long been an area of study for sociologists. US academic Sharon Zukin’s work has thrown light on the processes behind “gentrification”: the reworking of districts to meet higher-class standards. Her study Loft Living, (1982), discusses how the SoHo area of New York, once a district of garment manufacturers and later artist studios, became a more desirable neighbourhood of upmarket apartments and boutiques. Her 2010 book Naked City also focuses on New York, and how gentrification has robbed the city of its soul.

  Glossary

  Activist A person with strong political or social beliefs who takes action to change an existing system. Activitists usually belong to organized groups.

  Agency In sociology, a person’s ability to act independently and make free choices.

  Alienation A term used in Marxism to mean a feeling of disconnection from friends, job, and society. Alienation is common among workers who have no say in what they do or what goods they produce.

  Anomie A state of aimlessless and confusion. It is what people experience when normal society suddenly breaks down and familiar rules and standards no longer have any meaning.

  Blue-collar worker A description of a person who does manual work rather than a “desk” job. The term refers to the blue overalls commonly worn by labourers in the early 20th century. (See also White-collar worker.)

  Business class The people who own and run businesses, using paid employees to do the work.

  Capitalism A type of economic system in which businesses and services can be privately owned and run for profit by individuals, rather than by a government.

  Class A group of people who are broadly equal in terms of power, wealth, and social status.

  Climate change Long-term change in global temperatures and weather patterns. Most scientists agree that human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels, is contributing to the present warming up of the world’s climate.

  Colonialism A system in which one country takes over another and turns it into a settled colony. The parent nation, which holds all the political power, exploits the resources of the colony for financial profit.

  Community A group of people who have an interest or a characteristic (such as being gay) in common. They may not live in the same place.

  Conspicuous consumption Spending money on expensive, and unnecessary, goods and services for the purpose of displaying wealth and status.

  Consumer A person who buys goods and services for his or her own use.

  Cooperative A business that is owned and run by its workers. The members of a cooperative all have a say in decision-making and a share in the profits.

  Cultural omnivore Someone who enjoys all types of social activity, from “highbrow” culture, such as ballet, to popular culture, such as rock music.

  Culture The arts, activities, ideas, customs, and values shared by members of a particular group or society.

  Data Statistics, numbers, and other items of information collected together for study or reference.

  Data set A collection of pieces of information for computer processing – for example, census data – which may be looked at as separate items or as a set.

  Dataveillance Tracking of people’s activities through their personal electronic data systems. Includes monitoring a person’s mobile phone calls, i
nternet usage, and emails.

  Depression A long-term mental disorder that causes feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and lack of interest in life. People with depression may also experience physical problems, commonly including headaches, joint pains, and extreme tiredness.

  Deviant A person or a type of behaviour that breaks the normal rules of a particular society.

  Dialectic Two opposing points of view that come together to create something new.

  Discrimination The unfair treatment of people because of such things as their skin colour, sex, and age.

  Domestic work Unpaid work in the home, such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare.