Fukuda’s petition about transfers to Crystal City and, 165, 166
Harrison as commissioner of, 35, 38, 40, 53–54, 58, 88, 94, 111, 176, 177, 263, 269
Harrison’s memos to employees of, 104, 115
Harrison’s resignation from, 177, 180, 231, 269
Kenedy, Texas, camp, of, 43
Kolb’s protest to, 116
Mangione as press aide in, 109, 234
O’Rourke’s early service with, 57
O’Rourke’s reassignment to, 296, 306–07, 321
parole of internees and, 150, 306
postwar release of internees by, 246, 295
repatriation of dangerous enemy aliens and, 298–99
Roosevelt’s investigation of Nazi and Fascist organizations by, 26
shutting down of camps operated by, 295
sponsors for Japanese Peruvians and, 369
teachers in camps and, 134–35
train escorts provided by, 84–85, 86, 89, 93, 250, 251
immigration laws
Chinese worker exclusion under, 176
denial of citizenship to immigrants under, 13, 32, 50, 140
Harrison’s desire to humanize, 40
Harrison’s resignation from INS to protest, 269
Jewish displaced persons and, 176–77, 230, 271
racial discrimination and limitations under, 176–77, 230, 269
Internal Security Division, 174–75
International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 322
International Red Cross, 80, 93, 108, 122, 137, 166, 195, 208–09, 211, 273
internment
of American citizens, xvii, 24, 33, 137–38, 145, 234, 241, 299–300, 310–11
Biddle’s enforcement of laws on, 32–33, 152, 322
challenges to constitutionality of, 145–46
detention and exchange policies intertwined with, 54–55
Ennis’s justification of, 78
Hoover’s black list and, 32, 39, 68
lawsuits on constitutionality of, 298, 305
possible prisoner-of-war exchanges and, 28–29, 140
prisoner-of-war status and, 88
Quaker opposition to, 150
Roosevelt’s policies on, 23–24, 28–29, 77, 149, 320
secrecy of reasons behind, 81–82
Supreme Court decision on, 322
voluntary internment of family members in, 84, 87, 184
internment camps
for families, xv–xvi
Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit to, 148–49
fence sickness experienced in, 80, 82, 128, 171
Fukuda’s criticism of treatment in, 153–55, 164–66, 305
Geneva Convention on treatment of internees in, 107–08, 166
Harrison’s oversight of, 269
loyalty questionnaires used at, 139–40, 150
parole of, 77, 150, 244, 253, 301, 305–06, 309–10
postwar closing of, 246–47, 295
psychological effects on internees in, 147, 148, 149, 155, 165, 242, 297, 313, 316
repatriation of internees in. See repatriation
teachers in camps and, 112, 134–35
See also specific camps
issei. See Japanese immigrants
Isomura, Hirota, 147, 154
Italian immigrants, 269
arrest and internment of, xv, xvii, 5, 8, 32, 34, 43, 62, 77, 87, 311, 322
at Crystal City, xvii, 38, 41, 44, 105, 178, 295, 316
fears of, 20–21, 25
Roosevelt’s policies on, 22, 23–24, 25, 33, 77
Jackson, Robert H., 48
Jacobi, Arthur, 96
Jacobs, Arthur, 325, 344–45
Japan
exchanges for American citizens held in, 122
repatriation of internees to. See repatriation
Japanese Americans (born in the United States)
Americans citizenship of, 12, 137–38, 251, 289, 293
split Japanese and American identities of, 130
Japanese immigrants (born in Japan)
arrest and internment of, xvii, 5, 8, 23, 32, 33–34, 43, 44, 62, 77, 87, 322
denial of citizenship to, 13, 32, 140
Eleanor Roosevelt’s support for rights of, 19–20, 22, 30–31
impact of Pearl Harbor attack on, 11, 12, 15
life in Little Tokyo, Los Angeles, and, 9–12
in Peru. See Japanese Peruvians
removal from Latin America of, xvii, 29, 39–40
as subjects of suspicion, 5, 9, 20, 22–23, 25, 85
Japanese internees, Crystal City camp, xv, xvi, 38, 44, 132, 295, 324–25
American-born children of, 44
awareness of World War II progress among, 233, 243, 244
camp administration of nationalities and, 297–98
camp store for, 108–09, 118–19
closure of camp and, 307
daily life for, 58
death of Roosevelt and, 234–35
disputes between Germans and, 55
film about Crystal City and, 240–42
loyalty questionnaires for, 139–40
O’Rourke’s handling of problems in, 118–20, 135, 150–51, 164, 169, 170–74
reparations for, 320, 325
repatriation of. See repatriation
school for, 58, 111, 112, 120, 134, 136–37, 164, 166, 171–74, 234, 244, 245–46, 299
self-rule election of spokesman by, 94
soldiers drawn from, 140–41
Spain as protecting power for, 154–55, 169, 171, 299
tofu production dispute and, 118–20
Japanese Peruvians
arrests and internment of, xvii, 29, 38, 29
in Crystal City, 96, 136, 179, 245, 253, 260, 305–06, 307, 309, 320, 357
drowning of two girls and, 178–80, 233, 317
exchanges of, 124–25, 320
Mochizuki’s experience as, xvii–xviii, 245–46, 253, 254–55, 260, 320, 357
reparations for, 320
repatriation to Japan of, 250, 251, 252, 253, 260, 261–62, 305
sponsorship of, to San Francisco, 309–10
Japanese School, Crystal City camp, Texas, 58, 111, 112, 120, 134, 136–37, 164, 166, 171–74, 234, 244, 245–46, 299
Jewish displaced persons
Eisenhower’s views on, 272–73
Eleanor Roosevelt’s support for, 323
exchange to America of, 209–10, 211, 227–28, 231–32, 266
German anti-Semitism against, 228
Harrisons’ sheltering of, 47, 176
Harrison’s support for US acceptance of, 176, 231, 265–71, 273
Philippeville camp for, 223–27, 229, 271, 274, 284
President Roosevelt’s immigration policies and, 177, 229–31, 264, 269
proposed resettlement in Palestine and, 267, 270–71, 284, 321
Jews in Crystal City
conflicts between German Nazi internees and, 81
fears of being exchanged to Germany, 81
Kolb’s protest about, 116
from Latin America, 80–81, 96
Jews in Germany
American knowledge of situation of, 264–65
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and, 197–202, 207–08, 264, 329
German anti-Semitism against, 75
liberation of concentration camps and, 266–68
Nazi policies on internment of, xv, 48, 191, 197–99, 202–09, 230, 231, 242–43, 264, 270, 271
value as exchange Jews, 197, 198–99
Jews in United States
anti-Semitism against, 75, 99, 177
Kuhn’s extortion plan against Rubinstein, 98–99
support for Jewish displaced persons among, 230, 265
Justice Department, 38, 47, 76, 84, 98, 113, 114, 154, 156, 176, 298, 301, 320
Kalinowsky, Ingo, 80
Kanagawa Civil Internment Camp, Japan, 166
Kanogawa, Reo, 130, 131
Kanogawa, Sei, 126
Kanogawa, Sho, 171–72
/>
Kanogawa, Shoji, 126, 130, 131, 172, 238
Kanogawa, Yae
Ellis Island stay of, 126, 127
end of World War II and, 247
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing and, 245
junior-senior prom and, 171–72, 173–74
train trip to Crystal City by, 127, 130, 131, 132
Kaplan, Hugo, 226, 284, 286–87
Kaplan, Lottie, 287
Kaplan, Rose, 226, 284, 286–87
Kaunitz displaced-persons camp, Germany, 268
Kawaguchi, Harry, 244
Kawate, Bunjiro, 161
Kellogg, Paul U., 52
Kelly, Willard F., 40, 41, 165–66
Kenedy, Texas, internment camp, 43, 44–45, 87–88
Kesserlring, Millie, 238–39
Kobata, Shiro, 147, 154
Kolb, Karl, 95, 114, 116, 118
Kondo, Ben, 162
Konko Church, San Francisco, 158, 159, 160, 162, 164, 309, 310, 320
Kostler, Lise, 202
Kramer, Josef, 199
Kreuzner, George, 116–17
Kuhn, Elsa, 97, 100, 115, 323
Kuhn, Fritz, 96–101, 103, 113–14, 115–16, 118, 298, 323
Kuhn, Walter Max, 100, 103, 115, 323
Kuhn, Waltraut, 100, 323
Kumamoto, “Spider,” 238
Kurusu, Saburo, 57
La Guardia, Fiorello, 19–20, 99
Latin America
exchanges involving nationals from, 38, 231
FBI monitoring of threats from, 29, 39
internment camps in, 39
removal and internment of nationals from, xvii, 29, 39–40, 185, 246, 320
Latin Americans
alien registration of, 49
in Crystal City, xv, 38–39, 41, 45, 57, 80, 87, 88, 96, 136, 155, 178, 183, 185, 193, 231, 253, 316
Nazi supporters among, 80
racial discrimination against, 52
repatriation of, 246
See also Japanese Peruvians
League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), 49
Leetham, Ingrid. See Eiserloh, Ingrid
Leetham, Mack, 326
Lewis, Sinclair, 26
Liberty ships, 231–32, 274, 284, 285–86
Lichtman, Allan J., 229–30, 354
Lippmann, Walter, 22–23
Lordsburg, New Mexico, internment camp, 126, 143, 147, 149, 154–55
MacArthur, Douglas, 245, 290
Manzanar relocation camp, California, 171
Mangels, William, 185
Mangione, Jerre, 39–40, 49, 50, 57–58, 109, 234, 240, 340–41
March of Time newsreel, 38
Martin, Dr. Robert, 179, 186, 188–89, 239, 303, 304, 306
Masuda, Bessie, 179
Matshushima, Yoji J., 130–31
Maverick, Maury, 42
McCollister, L. T., 307, 309, 310
McCormack, John, 26
McGovern, Pat, 67, 75
McGovern, Rosemary, 67–68, 74
McIntire, Ross T., 32–33
Menuhin, Yehudi, 237
Military Intelligence Service (MIS), 115, 144, 151
Minidoka, Idaho, internment camp, 126
Minner (later Fuhr), Barbara, 239–40, 301–02, 308, 309, 324, 325
Missoula, Montana, internment camp, 55, 126, 143, 154, 155
Mochizuki, Carmen Higa, xvii–xviii, 245–46, 253, 254–55, 260, 320, 357
Morgenthau, Henry Jr., 50–51, 265
Munch, Edvard, 8–9
Murrow, Edward R., 264–65
Mussolini, Benito, 240
Myer, Dillon, 148, 149
Nagasaki, Japan
bombing of, 245, 246, 257
interness’ return to, 260
Nakamura, Gongoro, 235
Nakamura, Ty, 178, 179
Nazis and Nazi sympathizers
American fears of, 25–26, 39, 75
anti-German sentiment and, 4, 6, 75, 76, 93–94, 102, 116, 308, 345
conflicts between Jewish internees and, 81, 264
FBI investigation of, 5, 26, 59, 77
German internees and support for, 80–81, 184, 242, 300
Kuhn and the Bund and, 96, 98–99, 100, 103
racial discrimination and, 126, 177
Neff, Eleanor, 84–85
nisei. See Japanese Americans
New Deal, 21, 44, 72, 99, 229–30
New York Times, 25–26, 100, 177, 271, 272, 307, 323
Nishimoto, Alice Nagao, 178–79, 260–62, 320
Nomura, Kichisaburo, 57, 123
Nuremberg trials, 322
Ohta, Ella, 243, 246
Okabe, Mas, 253, 256, 257, 259–60, 290–91, 292, 318
Okazaki, Maruko, 174
Okazaki, Sid, 136
Oliver, Symmes F., 56, 91
O’Rourke, Joan, 57, 321
O’Rourke, Joseph
background of, 56–57, 118
camp children and, 57, 58, 130, 167, 170, 174, 233–34, 296, 298, 302
camp stores and, 109, 118–19
complaints from internees to, 94, 95, 100
coping with the demands of his work by, 57–58, 117, 234
as Crystal City officer in charge, 56, 58, 85, 104, 112, 117–18, 131, 295
death of Roosevelt and, 235
drowning of two girls and, 178, 180
Eiserloh family and, 89
Elsa Kuhn and, 100
employees at Crystal City and, 104, 108, 297
end of World War II announced by, 244
film on Crystal City and, 240, 241
Fukuda family and, 156–57, 164, 166, 167, 303–04, 305, 321
German section tensions and, 95, 100, 103, 114–16, 117, 118, 298, 345
Harrison’s resignation from INS and, 177, 180
Japanese section problems and, 118–20, 135, 150–51, 164, 169, 170–74
junior-senior prom and, 169, 170–74
mail monitoring and censorship and, 173, 174, 176
mix of nationalities in Crystal City and, 297
personal life of, 57, 295–96
postwar deportation of internees by, 298–301
process of phasing out camp by, 302
reassignment to INS office of, 306–07, 321
repatriation (exchange) and, 184
report and reflections on the camp by, 295–97, 311
schools and, 134, 135, 169, 170, 173, 244, 299, 302
swimming pool and, 105
tofu production and, 118–20
travel arrangements for Japanese and, 127, 130
Utsushigawa’s return to Japan and, 249
welcome speech from, 90–91
O’Rourke, Loretta, 57
O’Rourke, Mary, 295–96, 306, 307, 321
Oykawa, Aiko, 178–79
Palestine, proposed immigration to, 267, 270–71, 284, 321
Parker, Margaret Paul, 37–38
parole of internees, 77, 150, 244, 253, 301, 305–06, 309–10
Patton, George S., 213, 264, 272
Pearl Harbor attack, xvii, 3, 4–6, 9–12, 20, 22–23, 30–31, 154
Pehle, John, 264
Pegler, Westbrook, 23
Perry, Donald, 49
Peru
arrests of Axis citizens in, 39
Japanese in. See Japanese Peruvians
postwar denial of return of Japanese Peruvians to, 260, 305
Philippeville, Algeria, displaced-persons camp, 211, 223–26, 229, 232, 266, 271, 274, 284–85, 289
Poots, Robert, 65
Popeye statue, Crystal City, Texas, 41–42, 90, 131, 249
prisoners of war (POWs)
American, in Germany, 194–95, 323–24, 184–85, 194, 209, 228, 323–24
American, in Japan, 123, 124, 142, 165, 242
American camps for, 38, 40, 43, 45, 77–78, 80
at Crystal City, 38, 88, 96, 134, 169
exchange program for, 29, 78, 184–85, 189, 194, 209, 228
family reunions as c
ondition for repatriation of, 82, 88, 126
Fritz Kuhn as, 96
Geneva Convention on treatment of, 40, 45, 154, 166
German, 191, 192, 194, 227, 228
Japanese, 127, 131
Mathias Eiserloh as, 77–78, 80, 82, 88
official enemy aliens classified as, 77, 78
Quakers, 150, 254, 322
Reagan, Ronald, 320, 327
Red Cross, 80, 93, 108, 122, 137, 166, 195, 208–09, 211, 273
reparations, 320, 325
repatriation
American-born children and, 111–12, 151, 152, 184
Biddle’s speech on, 151–52
decisions on, 165, 184, 185–87
departure ceremonies for, 115, 187
Eiserloh family and, 82, 88, 111–12, 186–87, 188
exchanges for Americans as part of, 64–65, 96, 102, 112, 115, 188, 193–95, 323–24
family reunions as condition for, 82, 88, 126
Fukuda’s concern about, 164, 165
Hasenburger family and, 115
involuntary, 96, 112, 116
Isamu Taniguchi’s request for, 147, 150–51
Kolb family and, 116
Kanogawa family and, 126
Kuhn’s status and, 96–97, 115–16
language difficulties after, 111
list of items to be taken on, 185–86
loyalty of Japanese internees and desire for, 164
meaning of word, 184
number and range of internees on, 189
oaths signed before leaving, 187
Utsushigawa family and, 121, 126, 137
volunteering for 442nd Combat Team to avoid, 152
war context and risks in, 188, 193
Rifkind, Simon H., 273
Roosevelt, Anna, 236
Roosevelt, Eleanor
death of Roosevelt and, 235–36, 323
Gila River camp visit of, 148–49
Hoover’s investigation of, 27–28
Japanese American internees and, 148–49
race relations and, 52, 323
rights of immigrants and, 19–20, 22, 31–32, 33, 50, 51
Roosevelt’s internment policies and, 21–22, 34, 149
United Nations delegation with, 323
visit to West Coast by, 19–21
World War II and, 28, 214
Roosevelt, Franklin D., xvii, 4, 5
anti-Semitism against Jewish advisers of, 75, 99
arrest and internment policies of, 23–24, 28–29, 32–34, 77, 149, 152, 162, 177, 262, 320, 322
Biddle’s support for, 32–33, 152
Black Tom incident and, 24–25
death of, 234–36
declaration of war by, 159
Eleanor Roosevelt’s activism and, 21–22, 34, 50, 51, 149
exchange of Japanese prisoners of war and, 124
Harrison’s resignation from INS and, 177
Hoover’s investigation of Eleanor and, 27–28
Ingrid Eiserloh’s letter to, 86
Japanese Americans as soldiers and, 139, 143–44
The Train to Crystal City: FDR's Secret Prisoner Exchange Page 41