Tchalenko, Georges, 112–13, 444
Terence, dramatist, 17, 394
Tervingi: confederation, 86, 94; conflict with Huns, 151–2, 158, 361, 433; Danube asylum seekers, 145, 152, 158, 361, 433; forces, 445; Hadrianople battle, 179, 181; leadership, 72, 86, 90, 95–6, 145, 152, 166, 183, 213; relationship with Greuthungi, 164, 167, 213, 451, 453; relationship with Romans, 72–6, 162–3, 165, 167, 182, 453, 456, 457; religion, 75–6, 76–8, 92–3, 96, 162, 457; revolt, 163–4; territory, 85, 146, 154; in Thrace (376), 194; trade, 89, 456; treaty (332), 73, 75, 82, 162; treaty (369), 72–6, 92, 162; treaty (376), 162–3, 167; treaty (382), 184, 213; wars with Rome, 72, 73, 179, 183–4; see also Goths
Tetrarchy (‘rule of four’), 25, 130, 131, 262
Tetraxitae, 353
Teutoburger Wald: massacre, 46–7, 51 (map), 54; visit of Germanicus, 46, 55
Thalassius, senatorial candidate, 116
Thaumastius, uncle of Sidonius, 419
Themistius, philosopher: on barbarians, 69; on Constantinople and Rome, 25–6; on emperor’s circle, 102; on Gothic policy, 186–8, 189–90; on Gothic treaty, 184, 212; influence, 102, 166, 377; on journey from Syria, 163–4, 166; on Persians, 71; on Theodosius’ appointment, 187–8, 188–9; on Valens and Athanaric, 72–3, 74, 76, 81
Theoderic I, king of the Visigoths, 338–9
Theoderic II, king of the Visigoths, 380–1, 415–16, 418
Theoderic the Amal, king in Italy, 76, 352, 353, 452, 454
Theodorus, conspirator, 29
Theodosian Code, 109, 124, 128–32, 139, 370, 402
Theodosius, count, 254, 449
Theodosius I, emperor: accession, 28, 29, 187; death, 216, 246, 281; father’s death, 254; Gothic policy, 184, 186–9, 211–12; grandson, 240; Persian policy, 386; relationship with western empire, 29–30; response to tax riot, 120; rule, 24; sons, 24, 29, 205, 216–17; successor, 216–17
Theodosius II, emperor: accession, 222, 387; Attila’s embassy to, 323–4; cousin, 240; death, 371, 389; relationship with Aetius, 285; support for Valentinian III, 259, 260; Theodosian Code, 129–30
Theodosius, magister militum, 100
Theodosius, son of Athaulf, 240, 378
Theophanes, bureaucrat in Egypt, 104–6, 170, 233, 307, 310, 313
Thermopylae, pass, 309
Thessalonica, city, 168, 170, 171, 184, 301
Thessaly, province, 184, 188
Thompson, Edward, 360, 389
Thorismund, son of Hunimund, 357
Thrace: administration, 194; Gothic invasion (378), 183; Gothic revolt (395), 214; Gothic settlement, 184, 353, 388; Roman control, 9, 71; Roman forces, 159
Thracian plain, 168, 173, 175, 178, 180, 309
Thraustila, guards officer, 373–4
Thuringi, 414
Tibatto, leader of Bagaudae, 287
Tiberius, emperor, 57
Tiburnia, Gothic raid, 413
Ticinum, army headquarters, 222
Tigris, river, 13, 26, 62
Tingitana, count of, 270
Tomi, Roman garrison, 211
Tongres, battle, 3–5, 6
Torcilingi, 367
Toulouse: siege, 303; Visigoths, 339
Tournai, capital city, 418
Tours, Visigothic control, 416
Trajanus, general, 173–4
Transmarisca, fort, 172
Transoxiana, 386
Treveri, 3, 13, 22, 32, 38, 48
tribute: to Goths, 368, 388; to Huns, 301, 304, 307–8, 312, 327, 360, 366, 454
Trier: description of, 32–4; embassy to, 22, 105; fall of, 337; games, 68; imperial capital, 22, 25, 28, 29, 100, 103; rural life around, 41–2; Symmachus in, 33–4, 36; taxation, 245; urban life, 37–8; villas, 35, 41
Tripolitania, province, 100, 382, 396, 400
Troesmis, fort, 172
Trygetius, prefect, 340
Tunisia, rural prosperity, 113
Turkic language, 147–8
Uldin, Hunnic leader: career, 196; followers, 196, 198, 327, 329; invasion, 196, 201–2, 204, 388
Ulfilas, apostle of the Goths, 76–80, 85, 267
Ursulus, financial minister, 121
Utica, port, 276, 279
Utus: battle of the, 309; fortress, 360
Uxellodunum, siege, 8
Vadomarius, leader of the Alamanni, 85–6, 90
Valamer, Ostrogothic leader: death, 358; invasion, 368, 413; Jordanes’ account of, 356–7; unification of Ostrogoths, 418, 452, 453
Valens, emperor: accession, 71; admission of Gothic asylum seekers, 158–9, 162–3, 166–7, 253, 352, 436, 453; advance into Thrace, 177; army, 176, 178; campaign against Goths, 73–4, 81, 161; in Constantinople, 176, 177; Danube fortifications, 81; death, ix, 180, 181; Gothic embassies to, 153; Gothic peace overtures, 179, 182; Hadrianople battle, ix, 178–81, 182; meeting with Athanaric, 72–3, 75, 83; peace treaty with Goths (369), 72–6, 161; peace treaty with Persians, 173, 176, 386; Persian threat, 73–4, 161, 173; power-sharing, 25, 130; relationship with Gratian, 163, 176–8, 181, 196; religious policy, 79; response to Danube crisis, 163–4, 165, 173, 175; successor, 29; Symmachus on, 42; taxation, 140; Themistius’ speech to, 25, 71
Valentinian I, emperor: accession, 29; army, 187; Ausonius on, 42; award of titles, 40; council, 253; court, 35; embassy to, 22, 31, 33, 72; empire, 433; Lepcis Magna scandal, 100, 101, 103–4; meeting with Macrianus on Rhine, 74, 83, 86; powersharing, 24–5, 130; sons, 28, 163; son’s tutor, 36; taxation, 140
Valentinian II, emperor, 28, 68, 280
Valentinian III, emperor; accession, 259–60, 281, 369; birth, 251; daughters, 371–2; death, 373–4, 377, 382, 383, 390, 391; death of Aetius, 372–3; heir to throne, 258; laws, 289, 295; lifestyle, 370–1; marriage, 129, 260, 371; power struggle for control of, 268, 281, 369–70; relationship with Aetius, 369–71, 372–5; relationship with Constantinople, 129–30, 382, 388, 389; Sidonius on, 382; sister, 335, 370; succession issue, 371–2
Valerian, emperor, 59, 60, 63, 66
Vallia, Visigothic king, 267, 390
Vandals: in Africa, 267–72 (map), 283, 288–90, 292–6, 395–6, 434, 445, 451; coalition, 453; culture, 200; fleet, 402–5; forces, 198, 445; in Gaul, 208, 221, 434; Justinian’s campaigns against, 431; language, 263; migrations, 197–8; origins, 195, 202, 204; peace treaty (435), 286, 289, 292; peace treaty (442), 292; relationship with Romans, 395; Rhine crossing (406), 194, 201, 206, 433; Roman war against, 286; sack of Rome, 379, 395; social structure, 263; in Spain, 209, 221, 241, 266, 288, 344, 434; territory, 358; treaty with Constantinople, 427; see also Hasding Vandals, Siling Vandals
Vannius, king of the Marcomanni, 97, 456
Vardar valley, 168
Varronianus, son of Jovian, 258
Varus, P. Quinctilius, general, 46–7, 55, 228, 451, 457
Veii, siege, 228
Veleda, prophetess, 54
Venantius Fortunatus, poet,
Vercingetorix, Gallic leader, 7
Vergil, poet, 17, 37, 122, 394
Via Aurelia, 233
Via Egnatia, 170, 184
Victor, bishop of Vita, 293, 382
Victor, general, 173
Victorius, general, 420
Vigilas, interpreter, 314–17, 322–3, 334
villas, Roman, 35–6, 41, 311, 410, 439
Viminacium, military base, 301, 302, 303, 304, 326, 361
Vincentius, general, 420
Vindicianus, proconsul of Africa, 280
Vinitharius, Gothic ruler, 357
Visigoths: Alaric’s leadership, 211–16, 237–8, 265, 453–4; in Aquitaine, 263, 265, 338, 408; campaign against Huns, 338–9; Christianity, 442; conflict with Suevi, 381; conquest of Rome, 191, 227–32, 267, 434; defeat (426), 261; defeat (439), 287–8, 289, 299; in Gaul, 283, 287, 396, 415–17, 451; Justinian’s campaigns against, 431; laws, 431; relationship with Huns, 336; relationship with Romans, 265–6, 377–8, 379–80, 383–4, 394; revolts, 281, 287; Roman campaigns against, 285, 374; in Spain, 417 (map), 431; se
e also Alaric, Euric, Goths
Vistula, river, 49
Vitalis, finance officer in Egypt, 104, 105
Vitheric, son of Vithimer, 151
Vithicabius, son of Vadomarius, 90
Vithimer, leader of Greuthungi, 151, 152, 153
Vitus, general, 345
Volga Steppe, 202, 331
Volubilis, tribal centre, 279
Vortigern, ruler in Britain, 346
Wallia, leader of Goths, 241
weapons: grave goods, 200; Hunnic, 155–8; Roman, 6–7, 458; sacrifices, 92, 93–4
Wielbark culture, 87
Wijster, farming settlement, 86–7
wills, 136, 139
wine, 75, 93, 277–8
Zeno, emperor, 406, 429, 454
Zizais, client king, 98
Zosimus, historian: on Alaric, 225; on Bagaudae, 282; on Britain, 244–5; on Hunnic cavalry, 155; on Olympius’ plot, 222; on Radagaisus, 194; on Radagaisus’ followers, 197; as source, 192–3, 194; source for, 192; on Valens, 196
The Fall of the Roman Empire
PETER HEATHER was born in Northern Ireland in 1960 and educated at Maidstone Grammar School and New College, Oxford. He has taught at University College, London and Yale University, and is currently a Fellow of Medieval History at Worcester College, Oxford.
Acknowledgements
The contract for this project was signed only about four years ago, but there is a very real sense in which I have been writing this book for much of the nearly twenty-five years I have been engaged in research on matters Roman and barbarian. In that sense, there really are too many people for me to thank and acknowledge from everyone who has taught me, especially my DPhil supervisors James Howard-Johnston and John Matthews, to all the friends and colleagues from whom I have learned so much, both in London and Oxford, to all the long-suffering students who have put up so cheerfully both with different versions of the various arguments on which this book rests and my delight in really dreadful puns. And although I would lay intellectual claim to some of the key observations and connections which knit this book together, the narrative also reflects my understanding of the general (and sometimes more particular) significance of the entire historical tradition in which I work. My debt to the scholarship and intellect of others is enormous and I would like to make this point explicit here, as the constraints of writing this book for a more general audience mean that the notes do not always fully acknowledge my intellectual debts. I am strongly aware, however, that they exist, and would like in particular to thank all the colleagues and friends who proved such stimulating company in the first half of the 1990s, when I was lucky enough to learn a huge amount from participating in the European Science Foundation’s Transformation of the Roman World project. More specifically, I would like to thank Jason Cooper, my editor at Macmillan, whose wise advice has sustained me throughout, Sue Phillpott, my copy-editor, who put in a huge amount of work on my behalf, and all the friends who have listened to, read, and offered advice on all or part of what follows. Not least, I owe more than I can begin to calculate to my family who always cheer me up when I’m too miserable to carry on writing, and to the dog and cats – the need to pay their food bills keeps me at my desk when I would long since have been out enjoying myself.
First published 2005 by Macmillan
First published in paperback 2006 by Pan Books
This electronic edition published 2010 by Pan Books
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Copyright © Peter Heather 2005
The right of Peter Heather to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Photographic Acknowledgments
AKG Images: 7, 15, 23, 24, 26, 27.
Ancient Art & Architecture Collection: 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25.
The Art Archive: 2, 10 top. Bridgeman Art Library: 4, 10 left and right, 13, 14, 19.
Corbis: 16 (Robert Estall). Scala Archives: 9.
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Table of Contents
List of Maps
Acknowledgements
I NTRODUCTION
P ART O NE
1. R OMANS
2. B ARBARIANS
3. T HE L IMITS OF E MPIRE
P ART T WO
4. W AR ON THE D ANUBE
5. T HE C ITY OF G OD
6. O UT OF A FRICA
7. A TTILA THE H UN
P ART T HREE
8. T HE F ALL OF THE H UNNIC E MPIRE
9. E ND OF E MPIRE
10. T HE F ALL OF R OME
D RAMATIS P ERSONAE
T IMELINE
G LOSSARY
N OTES
B IBLIOGRAPHY
I NDEX
The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History Page 73