The White Horse King: The Life of Alfred the Great
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A very good place to start with any studies in the Anglo-Saxon era is the helpful, and beautifully depicted, introduction written by James Campbell.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. Michael Swanton, Routledge: New York, 1998.
The premier primary source for this era is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a year by year accounting of the events considered most significant to the recorders of early English history.
GENERAL BIOGRAPHY OF ALFRED
Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England, Richard Abels, Longman: Harlow, 1998.
The best scholarly biography available is by Richard Abels, Professor of History at the U.S. Naval Academy.
King Alfred the Great, Alfred Smyth, New York: Oxford Press, 1995.
Another very informative biography is offered by Oxford Press, authored by Alfred Smyth.
However, Smyth is convinced that the primary source for our knowledge of the life of Alfred, namely the biography produced by Asser, is a late forgery. Convinced that most of what we know about Alfred is a hagiographical manipulation of the facts, Smyth dedicates himself to exposing the real Alfred to his readers. Nevertheless, Smyth’s work is still a treasure trove for the historical background to Alfred’s reign. His previous publications on the Vikings of this era (works like Scandinavian Kings in the British Isles 850-880 and Scandinavian York and Dublin:
The History and Archaeology of Two Related Viking Kingdoms) are also invaluable for understanding the context of Alfred’s reign.
Alfred the Good Soldier, John Peddie, Bath: Millstream Books, 1992.
John Peddie’s biography focuses primarily on Alfred’s campaigns, and carefully retraces likely routes of travel and the chronologies of Alfred’s many battles.
ALFRED’S LITERARY WORKS
Alfred the Great: Asser’s Life of King Alfred and Other Contemporary Sources, Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, trans., Penguin: New York, 1983.
Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge have translated a selection of excerpts from Alfred’s works, along with the full text of Asser’s biography of the King and a number of other contemporary sources.
Bately, Janet. “The Books That Are Most Necessary for All Men to Know: The Classics and Late Ninth-Century England, A Reappraisal” in The Classics in the Middle Ages: Papers of the Twentieth Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, eds. Aldo Bernardo and Saul Levin. Binghamton: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1990.
————. “The Alfredian Canon Revisited,” in Alfred the Great: Papers from the Eleventh Centenary Conference, ed. Timothy Reuter. Ashgate: Burlington, 2003.
————. “The Literary Prose of King Alfred’s Reign: Translation or Transformation?” Old English Newsletter Subsidia vol.10, 1984.
Whitelock, Dorothy. “The Prose of Alfred’s Reign,” Continuations and Beginnings, Thomas Nelson and Sons: London, 1966.
For understanding the import of Alfred’s writings, the work of Dorothy Whitelock and Janet Bately are invaluable.
REFORMS OF THE INFRASTRUCTURE
Fortifications in Wessex c. 800-1066, Ryan Lavelle, Osprey: Oxford, 2003.
Alfred’s Kingdom: Wessex and the South, 800-1500, David Hinton, Dent and sons: London, 1977.
Alfred’s contribution to the infrastructure of England is nicely illustrated in these two volumes.
MUSEUMS
Sutton Hoo exhibit at the British Museum in London
Anglo-Saxon treasures of the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford (especially the Alfred Jewel)
Winchester museum in Alfred’s capital city
No real study of Alfred the Great or Anglo-Saxon England is complete without a firsthand encounter with the beautiful artefacts of early medieval England. I highly recommend these museums.
Index
Abingdon, abbey of,♣,♦
Ælfric, Catholic Homilies, ♣
Ælfthryth, ♣
Ælle, king of Northumbria, ♣
civil war with Osberht, ♣, ♦–♥
ritual sacrifice by Halfdan, ♣, ♦
“Æthel”, meaning, ♣n
Æthelbald, ♣n, ♦
attempt at throne takeover, ♣, ♦
death, ♣
Judith, as wife, ♣
Æthelberht, ♣n, ♦
on throne, ♣–♦
Æthelflæd
political power, ♣–♦, ♥ as wife of Æthelred (ealdorman), ♠
Æthelgifu, ♣
Æthelhelm (ealdorman of Wiltshire), ♣
Æthelnoth (ealdorman of Somerset), ♣–♦, ♥
Æthelred, ♣n, ♦, ♥
Alcuin’s letter to, ♣–♦
attack at Ashdown, ♣–♦
claim to throne, ♣
death, ♣
difficulty maintaining army, ♣–♦
funeral, ♣
as king, ♣
in Nottingham, ♣
prayers before battle, ♣
wounded in battle, ♣–♦
Æthelred (ealdorman), ♣–♦, ♥, ♠, †–‡
Æthelflæd as wife, ♣
as sponsor for Hastein’s son, ♣–♦
Æthelred II, danegeld payment by, ♣
Æthelstan (brother of Alfred), ♣n death, ♦
as victor of Brunanburh, ♣
Æthelstan (formerly Guthrum), ♣
actions of noblemen under, ♣
army camp, ♣
arrival of new Vikings, ♣–♦
at baptismal feast, ♣
at Chippenham after baptism, ♣
conversion to Christianity, cynical interpretation, ♣–♦
death, ♣, ♦
East Anglia rule, ♣
final settlement between Alfred and, ♣
refusal of Viking invitation, ♣–♦
Æthelstan (king, grandson of Alfred), ♣, ♦
expansion of kingdom, ♣
Æthelswith, ♣n, ♦
marriage to king of Mercia, ♣, ♦, ♥
Æthelweard (Alfred’s son), ♣
Æthelwulf (ealdorman), ♣–♦
death, ♣
report of victory to Æthelred, ♣
Æthelwulf (king of Wessex AD 839– 858
and Alfred’s pilgrimage to Rome, ♣
children, ♣
death, ♣
focus on mortality, ♣
Judith as new wife, ♣–♦
pilgrimage to Rome, ♣–♦
responsibility for Schola Saxonum, ♣
return to Wessex, ♣
Aidan (bishop), ♣–♦
Alcuin, ♣, ♦, ♥
Alfred Jewel, ♣–♦
Alfred the Great (king of Wessex), ♣
at Bratton Camp, ♣–♦
claim to throne, ♣
command to form shieldwall at Ashdown, ♣–♦
danegeld payment by, ♣–♦
difficulty maintaining army, ♣–♦
disguised as juggler, ♣–♦
efforts after Ashdown, ♣
final settlement between Æthelstan and, ♣
first combat, ♣–♦
gift-giving, ♣
guerrilla warfare resistance by, ♣
as Guthrum target, ♣
as Guthrum’s godfather, ♣, ♦
in hiding, ♣–♦
interest in sea exploration, ♣
as king, ♣
as king over Mercia, ♣–♦
knowledge of Viking raids, ♣
leadership at Ashdown, ♣
legends, ♣–♦♥–♠
meeting with Hastein, ♣–♦
in Nottingham, ♣
partnership with Count of Flanders, ♣
plans in Ashdown battle, ♣–♦
response to Guthrum surrender, ♣–♦
retreat from Chippenham, ♣
and siege of Nottingham, ♣
treatment of Hastein’s family, ♣–♦
Viking deal to end Wessex occupation, ♣–♦<
br />
Wessex noblemen betrayal, ♣
Alfred the Great (king of Wessex) personal life, ♣–♦
birth and childhood, ♣–♦
on buildings in Rome, ♣
children, ♣, ♦, ♥–♠
death, ♣
devotion to God, ♣
education, ♣, ♦–♥
entertainments, ♣
marriage, ♣–♦
perseverance, ♣
pilgrimage from Wessex to Rome, ♣–♦
travel with father to Rome, ♣
and white horse, ♣
will, ♣
Alfred the Great (king of Wessex) personal views
belief about baptism, ♣–♦, ♥–♠
forgiveness by, ♣
Alfred the Great (king of Wessex) reforms, ♣–♦, ♥–♠. See also domboc (law code)
defenses for cities, ♣–♦, ♥–♠, †
interest in book learning, ♣–♦
Latin translations into Anglo-Saxon, ♣
military innovations, ♣–♦
planning road and public places inside walls, ♣–♦
professional soldiers, ♣–♦
for Saxon currency, ♣
schools, ♣, ♦,–♥
shire fyrds mobilization problems, ♣
troop calculation method, ♣–♦
All Saints’ Day, Viking attack on York, ♣, ♦
Aller (village), ♣–♦
Anastasius, ♣
Andred (forest), ♣
Angles, English Channel crossing by, ♣n
Anglo-Saxon army. See also thegns
Alfred’s reform considerations, ♣–♦
attack on York, ♣
awkwardness of structure, ♣
loyalties of national fyrd, ♣–♦
need to press Viking retreat, ♣
Anglo-Saxon boats, Alfred’s design, ♣
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ♣, ♦
Anglo-Saxon church, golden age, decline, ♣–♦
Anglo-Saxon feasting after baptism, ♣–♦
Anglo-Saxon language, Latin translation to, ♣, ♦–♥
Anglo-Saxon poetry, ♣–♦n Alfred and, ♥
Anglo-Saxon society
ideals of, ♣–♦
outcasts of, ♣
Anglo-Saxon tribes, missionaries from Rome to Christianize, ♣
Anglo-Saxons ability of average
ability of average to read Latin, ♣
baptism ceremony, ♣–♦
as Christians, ♣
efforts to restore Christian learning, ♣–♦
faith of, ♣
golden age of culture, ♣
literacy revival, ♣–♦ Anwend, ♥
Appledore, ♣
archery, ♣ armor, ♦–♥
spears vs., ♣
Arthur (king), ♣
and white horse, ♣
245 Ashburg, ♣
Ashdown, battle of, ♣, ♦, ♥–♠
Æthelred’s army arrival, ♣–♦
Alfred and Æthelred’s plans, ♣–♦
Alfred and shieldwall formation, ♣–♦
conflicts prior to, ♣–♦
cost of, ♣–♦
location, ♣–♦
Viking army positions, ♣–♦, ♥
Asser (Alfred’s biographer), ♣, ♦, ♥, ♠, †
on Alfred’s devotion to God, ♣
on thorn tree, ♣
Assyrians, settlements, ♣
Athelney, ♣, ♦–♥♠
Æthelflæd in, ♣–♦
monastery, ♣
Augustine, Soliloquies, ♣
Augustine of Canterbury, ♣
Australia, common law foundation, ♣
Avon river, ♣
axes, ♣–♦ , ♥
in Edington battle, ♣
Badon Hill, ♣
Bagsecg, ♣ , ♦
and Ashdown battle, ♣
death, ♣
troop movement on Thames, ♣ Baldwin II (Count of Flanders), ♦
The Ballad of the White Horse (Chesterton), ♣
baptism
Alfred’s beliefs about, ♣–♦, ♥–♠
Anglo-Saxon ceremony, ♣–♦
Anglo-Saxon feasting after, ♣–♦
of Guthrum, ♣, ♦–♥
Hastein and, ♣–♦
of Hastein’s sons, ♣–♦
kinship bond by, ♣
Basing, ♣, ♦
Bath, defense for, ♣
246 battle. See combat; individual locations
battle-axe, ♣–♦
Bede, ♣, ♦–♥
Benedict III, ♣
Æthelwulf gifts to, ♣
Benfleet (village), ♣, ♦, ♥–♠
Beowolf, ♣n, ♦
Berkshire county, ♣
Berkshire downs, ♣
berserkergang, ♣–♦
Bible. See scriptures
bishops, as military leaders, ♣n
blacksmithing, Norse god of, ♣
Blood Eagle ceremony, ♣
blood feuds, efforts to curb, ♣–♦
Blowing Stone Hill, ♣–♦
Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy, ♣
books
Alfred’s commissioning of gift to accompany, ♣–♦
Alfred’s interest in, ♣
production, ♣
translations of Latin into Anglo-Saxon, ♣, ♦–♥
for Wessex library, ♣
Boulogne, ♣
-bourgh, as suffix in town name, ♣
Bratton Camp, ♣–♦
Alfred’s army approach, ♣–♦
shieldwall at, ♣–♦
Viking army at, ♣
Brescia (monastic community), ♣–♦
bribe. See danegeld (bribe)
bridge, and Danish longboats, ♣
Bridgnorth, ♣
Britain
divisions, ♣n
risk of return to worship of raw power, ♣
Viking invasion in 865, ♣
British Channel, Ubbe in, ♣
Brunanburh, battle of, ♣–♦
Brydian, defense for, ♣–♦
Burghal Hideage, ♣, ♦, ♥
Burgred, king of Mercia, ♣
Æthelswith as wife, ♣, ♦, ♥
burial in Schola Saxonium, ♣
danegeld from, ♣–♦, ♥, ♠
end of reign, ♣
Burgundy, ♣
burhs, ♣–♦, ♥, ♠
defense network tested in 892, ♣, ♦
double-burh, ♣–♦
and kingdom administration, ♣
Burrow Mump, ♣, ♦
-bury, as suffix in town name, ♣
Buttington, ♣
cakes, Alfred and, ♣–♦
Calais, ♣
Cambridge, Guthrum in, ♣
Canada, common law foundation, ♣
candles for tracking time, ♣–♦
Canterbury, mint, ♣
Carloman, danegeld payments by, ♣
Carolingians, ♣
catechumen, ♣
cathedrals, as requirement for city
designation, ♣
Ceolwulf, ♣, ♦, ♥, ♠
Charlemagne, crowning as emperor, ♣
Charles the Bald (king of West Franks), ♣, ♦
daughter as Æthelwulf ’s bride, ♣–♦
Charles the Fat
danegeld payments by, ♣
purchase of peace, ♣
Chester, abandoned Roman fortress in, ♣
Chesterton, G.K., The Ballad of the White Horse, ♣
Chichester, ♣
defense for, ♣
Chippenham (royal estate), ♣, ♦, ♥
Æthelstan (formerly Guthrum) at, ♣
Alfred’s retreat from, ♣
vs. Bratten Camp, ♣
Guthrum flight to, ♣
Guthrum’s march to, ♣
Saxon siege, ♣–♦
chrism of Æthelstan, ♣–♦
Christian calendar
Alfred’s use of, ♣
Guthrum use to plan attacks, ♣
Christian faith. See also baptism
Æthelstan’ conversion, cynical interpretation, ♣–♦
offer to Hastein of conversion, ♣
and treatment of captives, ♣
Viking invaders and, ♣–♦
Christian learning, ♣, ♦
efforts to restore to Anglo-Saxons, ♣–♦
need for revival, ♣–♦
perseverance, ♣–♦
scholars’ invitation to Wessex, ♣–♦
chronology, ♣–♦
church of saint Cuthbert, ♣, ♦
churches
for refuge for accused murderer, ♣–♦
taxes for danegeld, ♣
Cirencester, ♣, ♦
Cissanbyrig, defense for, ♣–♦
cities
cathedral as requirement for designation, ♣
defensive military forces for, ♣–♦
fortification with defensive wall, ♣–♦
City of Leo, ♣
clergy, Anglo-Saxon Britain’s
247 expectations, ♣n
clinker-built ship, ♣–♦
cloisonné enamel, ♣
coinage. See currency
Colne river, ♣
combat
advantage of defensive forces, ♣
plundering the dead, ♣
as ruling class duty, ♣
comitatus, bond of, ♣
common law, framework from Alfred for, ♣–♦
communication, Guthrum’s secret network, ♣
Condé (convent), ♣
The Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), ♣
Conwy, battle, ♣
Cornwall, ♣, ♦
Countisbury, ♣–♦, ♥
courts, guilt or innocence determination, ♣
craftsmen, as soldiers, impact on economy, ♣
crismlysing, ♣–♦
cristnung, ♣–♦
currency
Æthelstan’ coinage, ♣
of Saxons, renovations, ♣
Cuthbert (bishop), ♣–♦, ♥
danegeld (bribe), ♣, ♦–♥, ♠
from Burgred and Edmund, ♣
payments by European Christian rulers, ♣
for Wareham, Viking withdrawal, ♣–♦
“Dane-geld” (Kipling), ♣–♦
Danelaw, ♣
map, ♣
recruits from, ♣–♦, ♥