Lost to the West
Page 32
The fall of Constantinople may have extinguished the last vestige of the Roman Empire, but the immense light of its learning wasn’t snuffed out. Refugees streamed into western Europe, bringing with them the lost jewels of Greek and Roman civilization. The first blush of humanism was just stirring the West’s collective soul, and it received Byzantium’s precious gift with enthusiasm. Partial copies of Aristotle’s works had been well known for centuries, but now Europe was introduced to Plato and Demosthenes, electrified by the Iliad, and captivated by Xenophon and Aeschylus. Byzantine émigrés tutored luminaries as diverse as Petrarch and Boccaccio and the wealthy Cosimo de’ Medici was so impressed by a Byzantine lecturer that he founded the Platonic Academy of Florence. The result was a “rebirth” or “Renaissance,” as it was soon called, during which western Europe was reintroduced to its own roots.
Other exiles fled to Russia, the last great free Orthodox state, and tried to re-create the Byzantine dream. The kings of those vast northern lands already had a Byzantine alphabet and an eastern soul, and they welcomed the newcomers, taking the title of tsar—their version of Caesar—and adopting the double-headed eagle as their symbol. Byzantine art combined with local styles and continued to flourish throughout the Balkans and the north. The Russians could never forget the dazzling vision of Constantinople that was passed on to them, and the yearning for it became the long unfulfilled dream of the Russian Empire. They drank so deeply of Byzantium that even Stalin, flushed with the victory of Communism, embraced its memory, passing along both the lessons of its history and the dark mistrust of the West that still haunts the Kremlin.
The greatest heir of Byzantium, however, is undoubtedly the Orthodox Church. Pressed into service by the forces of nationalism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the church provided a cultural repository linking the peoples of the former empire with the glorious epochs of their past. Today the Byzantine eagle flutters proudly from the flags of nations from Albania to Montenegro, and though each state has its local version of the church, the heritage they all bear is Byzantine.*
Only in the West was the story largely forgotten, though without Byzantium the history of the Middle East and Europe is at best incomplete and at worst incomprehensible. When the smoke cleared from the Turkish cannons that awful Tuesday, it revealed a world that had profoundly changed. The Middle Ages had ended, and western Europe was on the brink of an extraordinary cultural explosion. Only thirty-five years after the fall of Constantinople, Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, opening up a sea route to India, and just four years after that, a little-known Italian explorer named Christopher Columbus—using a translated Byzantine text of Ptolemy’s Geographia—discovered America.
In the heady Age of Discovery that was dawning, there was little room for the tangled memories of Byzantium. The great bastion that had sheltered Europe for a millennium sank into obscurity, and the word “Byzantine” became a caricature of its people, conjuring up images of unnecessary complexity and vaguely sinister designs. Such accusations were as undeserved as they were untrue, and successfully denied the West the lessons afforded by the empire’s history and example. Though it sprang from the same cultural fountainhead that birthed western Europe, Byzantium found its own unique balance to the familiar tensions of church and state, faith and reason. Its empire stretched over lands long considered inherently unstable, and though it frequently stumbled, it left behind a legacy of stability and even unity for more than a thousand years.
The greatest tragedy in its vast and glorious tapestry is not the way in which it fell, but that it has been consigned to irrelevance, its voices unheeded and its lessons unlearned. For those who have eyes to see, however, the lonely Theodosian walls still stand, battered and abused, marching the long miles from the Sea of Marmara to the waters of the Golden Horn. There they serve as a fitting testament to that epic struggle five centuries ago, an unwavering reminder that the Roman Empire didn’t expire in the humiliation of a little Augustus, but in the heroism of a Constantine.
*The name was not officially changed to Istanbul until 1930.
*The crescent moon had actually been chosen by the citizens of Byzantium as the symbol of their city as early as 670 BC in honor of the patron goddess Artemis. Mehmed adopted it for his own banner and—once adapted to show a more appropriate waxing moon—it soon spread to become the official Islamic standard.
†The identification with the Byzantine past was also shown linguistically, since up until the nineteenth century the Greek word for themselves was Romioi, not Hellene.
*The eagle is also the symbol of Iraq and Egypt—a dim reflection of a time when Justinian’s empire embraced most of the known world.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
330–600
The following two books have been of invaluable service in researching the conversion of Constantine the Great (especially Eusebius’s account found in Maas), as well as theology, everyday life, and imperial edicts from the fourth century until the Muslim invasions of the seventh.
Lactantius. De Mortibus Persecutorum, J. L. Creed, ed. & trans. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
Maas, Michael. Readings in Late Antiquity. London: Routledge, 2003.
For the reign of Julian the Apostate I drew heavily on his principal biographer:
Ammianus Marcellinus. The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378), W. Hamilton, ed. & trans. New York: Penguin Classics, 1986.
as well as:
Wright, Wilmer C. Julian: Volume III. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003.
The latter is a collection of letters and polemics that the emperor wrote throughout his public life, from first donning his armor in Gaul to leaving for his ill-fated Persian campaign in 363.
Procopius was of immense assistance in researching the reign of Justinian, both the official “Buildings” and “Wars” and of course the scandalous “Secret History.”
Procopius. Buildings. H. B. Dewing, ed. & trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002.
Procopius. History of the Wars: The Persian War Books 1 & 2. H. B. Dewing, ed. & trans. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007.
Procopius. History of the Wars: The Vandalic War Books 3 & 4. H. B. Dewing, ed. & trans. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2007.
Procopius. The Secret History. G. A. Williamson, ed. & trans. London: Penguin Classics, 1966.
600–1000
This time period covers the Byzantine “dark ages” where literary sources become somewhat scarce. Fortunately the “Chronicle of Theophanes” sheds some much-needed light. This work by a ninth-century monk describes the rise of Heraclius and the empire’s struggle for survival amid religious dissension and external attack. The two major epochs of the period—the Iconoclastic controversy and the rise of the Macedonian dynasty—are detailed in Alice-Mary Talbot’s wonderful translations of Leo the Deacon and Eight Saints’ Lives.
Talbot, Alice-Mary. Byzantine Defenders of Images: Eight Saints’ Lives in English Translation. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1998.
Talbot, Alice-Mary. The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2005.
Turtledove, Harry. The Chronicle of Theophanes. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.
1000–1453
For the period from the First to the Fourth Crusades, I have depended on the lively eyewitness accounts provided by Anna Comnena, John Kinnamos, Michael Psellus, and Niketas Choniates for the Eastern perspective, and on Joinville and Villehardouin for the Western.
Choniates, Niketas. O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates. Trans. Harry J. Magoulias. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.
Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad. London: Penguin Classics, 1969.
Kinnamos, John. Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus. C. M. Brand, ed. & trans. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.
Psellus, Michael. Fourteen Byzantine Rulers. London: Penguin Classics, 1966.
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br /> Shaw, M. R. B. Joinville and Villehardouin: Chronicles of the Crusades. New York: Penguin, 1963.
SECONDARY SOURCES
The secondary sources that have been most helpful can be broken down into two groups—those that are overviews of Byzantine history and those that deal with specific periods. In the former category I have made most use of Warren Treadgold’s exhaustive history and Lord Norwich’s three-volume set. Timothy Gregory’s work has also been important, and, of course, Edward Gibbon—though with a certain amount of salt. In the latter category, for the period of the Crusades, I was assisted by Jonathan Harris’s work, and for the early Macedonian Dynasty by the great Steven Runciman. In detailing the final moments of the empire I am indebted to Roger Crowley and especially Donald Nicol for his excellent study on Constantine Dragases.
Crowley, Roger. 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West. New York: Hyperion, 2005.
Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 6 vols. New York: Random House, 1993.
Gregory, Timothy E. A History of Byzantium. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006.
Nicol, Donald M. The Immortal Emperor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Apogee. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004.
Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003.
Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989.
Runciman, Steven. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929.
Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. California: Stanford University Press, 1997.
Appendix
EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE
CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY (324-363)
324—353......Constantine the Great
353—361......Constantius..........Son of Constantine the Great
361—363......Julian the Apostate..........Cousin of Constantius
NON-DYNASTIC
363—364......Jovian..........Soldier, chosen on the battlefield
364—378......Valens..........Brother of Western Emperor Valentinian
THEODOSIAN DYNASTY (379-457)
379—395......Theodosius I the Great..........Soldier, chosen by Western Emperor Gratian
395—408......Arcadius..........Son of Theodosius
408—450......Theodosius II..........Son of Arcadius
450—457......Marcian..........Married Theodosius II’s sister
LEONID DYNASTY (457-518)
457—474......Leo I the Thracian..........Soldier, chosen by Eastern general Aspar
474......Leo II..........Grandson of Leo I
474—475......Zeno..........Son-in-law of Leo I
475—476......Basiliscus..........Usurper, brother-in-law of Leo I
476—491......Zeno (again)
491—518......Anastasius I..........Son-in-law of Leo I
JUSTINIAN DYNASTY (527-602)
518—527......Justin I..........Commander of the Palace Guard
527—565......Justinian I the Great..........Nephew of Justin I
565—578......Justin II..........Nephew of Justinian
578—582......Tiberius II ....Adopted by Justin II
582—602......Maurice..........Son-in-law of Tiberius II
NON-DYNASTIC
602—610......Phocas..........Usurper, soldier of Maurice
HERACLIUS DYNASTY (610-711)
610—641......Heraclius..........Usurper, general from Carthage
641......Constantine III..........Son of Heraclius Son of Heraclius Son of Constantine III
641......Heraclonas..........
641—668......Constans II the Bearded..........
668—685......Constantine IV..........Son of Constans II
685—695......Justinian II the Slit-Nosed...Son of Constantine IV
695—698......Leontius..........Usurper, soldier of Justinian II
698—705....Tiberius III ....Usurper, Germanic naval officer of Leontius
705—711......Justinian 11 (again)
NON-DYNASTIC
711—713......Philippicus..........Usurper, Armenian soldier of Justinian II
713—715......Anastasius II..........Usurper, imperial secretary of Philippicus
715—717......Theodosius III..........Usurper, tax collector and son (?) of Tiberius III
ISAURIAN DYNASTY (717-802)
717—741......Leo III the Isaurian..........Usurper, Syrian diplomat of Justinian II
741—775......Constantine V the Dung-Named..........Son of Leo III
775—780......Leo IV the Khazar..........Son-in-law of Leo III
780—797......Constantine VI the Blinded..........Son of Leo IV
797—802......Irene the Athenian..........Wife of Leo IV, mother of Constantine VI
NICEPHORUS DYNASTY (802-813)
802—811......Nicephorus I..........Usurper, finance minister of Irene
811......Stauracius..........Son of Nicephorus I
811—813 ....Michael I Rangabe..........Son-in-law of Nicephorus I
NON-DYNASTIC
813—820......Leo V the Armenian..........Patrician and general of Michael I
AMORIAN DYNASTY (820-867)
820—829......Michael II the Stammerer............Son-in-law of Constantine VI
829—842......Theophilus..........Son of Michael II
842—855......Theodora..........Wife of Theophilus
842—867......Michael III the Drunkard ...Son of Theophilus
MACEDONIAN DYNASTY (867-1056)
867—886......Basil I the Macedonian..........Armenian peasant, married Michael III’s widow
886—912......Leo VI the Wise..........Son of Basil I or Michael III
912—913......Alexander..........Son of Basil I
913—959......Constantine VII the Purple-Born..........Son of Leo VI
920—944.....Romanus I Lecapenus..........General, father-in-law of Constantine VII
959—963......Romanus II the Purple-Born..........Son of Constantine VII
963—969......Nicephorus II Phocas..........General, married Romanus II’s widow
969—976......John I Tzimisces..........Usurper, nephew of Nicephorus II
976—1025......Basil II the Bulgar-Slayer..........Son of Romanus II
1025—1028......Constantine VIII..........Son of Romanus II
1028—1050......Zoë....Daughter of Constantine VIII
1028—1034......Romanus III Argyrus..........Zoë’s first husband
1034—1041......Michael IV the Paphlagonian..........Zoë’s second husband
1041—1042......Michael V the Caulker..........Zoë’s adopted son
1042......Zoë and Theodora..........Daughters of Constantine VIII
1042—1055.......Constantine IX Monomachus..........Zoë’s third husband
1055—1056........Theodora (again)
NON-DYNASTIC
1056—1057.......Michael VI the Old..........Chosen by Theodora
1057—1059......Isaac I Comnenus..........Usurper, general of Michael VI
DUCAS DYNASTY (1059-1081)
1059—1067......Constantine X..........Chosen by Isaac
1068—1071......Romanus IV Diogenes..........Married Constantine X’s widow
1071—1078......Michael VII the Quarter-Short..........Son of Constantine X
1078—1081......Nicephorus III Botaneiates............Usurper, general of Michael VII
COMNENIAN DYNASTY (1081-1185)
1081—1118......Alexius I..........Usurper, nephew of Isaac I
1118—1143......John II the Beautiful..........Son of Alexius I
1141—1180......Manuel I the Great..........Son of John II
1080—1183.......Alexius II..........Son of Manuel I
1183—1185......Andronicus the Terrible..
........Usurper, cousin of Manuel I
ANGELUS DYNASTY (1185-1204)
1185 1195......Isaac II Ángelus..........Great-grandson of Alexius I
1195—1203.......Alexius III Ángelus..........Brother of Isaac II
1203—1204......Isaac II (again) and son Alexius IV
NON-DYNASTIC
1204......Alexius V the Bushy-Eyebrowed..........Usurper, son-in-law of Alexius III
PALAEOLOGIAN DYNASTY (1259-1453)
1259—1282.......Michael VIII..........Great-grandson of Alexius III
1282—1328......Andronicus II..........Son of Michael VIII
1328—1341.......Andronicus III..........Grandson of Andronicus II
1341—1391....John V..........Son of Andronicus III
1347—1354.......John VI..........Father-in-law of John V
1376—1379......Andronicus IV..........Son of John V
1390......John VII..........Son of Andronicus IV
1391—1425......Manuel II..........Son of John V
1425—1448......John VIII..........Son of Manuel II
1448—1453......Constantine XI Dragases............Son of Manuel II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Like the individuals it chronicles, a book never occurs in a vacuum, and writing this one has left me indebted to several people. First and foremost is my brother, Anders, who was a tireless source of encouragement and without whom pen would never have been put to paper. I am also grateful to Tina Bennett for her constant, excellent advice and to my editor, Rick Horgan, for his insightful comments and for keeping me true to the original aims of the book. The manuscript could never have reached its final form without Julian Pavia’s astute reading and has benefited immensely from his thoughtful questions. Many thanks also to Sam Freedman, David Morken, and to my students who endured the constant shoehorning of Byzantium into nearly every subject, but still asked questions. I am sincerely grateful as well to my parents for encouraging my love for the past, and to my siblings, Tonja, Pat, Nils, and Celine, for braving an endless stream of emperors and generals with unceasing support. Finally, I must thank my wife, Catherine, who has had to share me with Byzantium for far too long but whose enthusiasm for my work has never dimmed. Thank you all; your encouragement and guidance enabled this book to be written.