From the Ruins of Empire

by Pankaj Mishra

135 Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton, 1977), p 49.

  136 Keddie, Sayyid Jamal Ad-Din ‘Al-Afghani’, p. 419.

  137 Ibid.

  3. LIANG QICHAO’S CHINA AND THE FATE OF ASIA

  1 Renee Worringer (ed.), The Islamic Middle East and Japan: Perceptions, Aspirations, and the Birth of Intra-Asian Modernity (Princeton, 2007), p. 34.

  2 William Theodore De Bary (ed.), Sources of East Asian Tradition: The Modern Period (New York, 2008), p. 545.

  3 Ibid., p. 46.

  4 Ibid., p. 47.

  5 Renee Worringer, ‘“Sick Man of Europe” or “Japan of the near East”? Constructing Ottoman modernity in the Hamidian and Young Turk eras’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 36, 2 (May 2004), p. 207.

  6 Ibid.

  7 Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, Mass., 2000), p. 274.

  8 Bruce Cumings, Dominion from Sea to Sea: Pacific Ascendancy and American Power (New Haven, Conn., 2010), p. 85.

  9 John D. Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, 1863 – 1957: A Journalist for Modern Japan (Princeton, 1980), p. 233.

  10 Ian Buruma, Inventing Japan (New York, 2004), p. 50.

  11 Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, p. 235.

  12 William Theodore De Bary, Carol Gluck and Arthur E. Tiedemann (eds.), Sources of Japanese Tradition, 1600 – 2000, vol. 2 (New York, 2006), p.133.

  13 Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, p. 237.

  14 Ibid., p. 239.

  15 Ibid., p. 241.

  16 Joseph R. Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), p. 112.

  17 Ibid., p. 117.

  18 William Theodore De Bary, Richard John Lufrano, Wing-tsit Chan and Joseph Adler (eds.), Sources of Chinese Tradition, From 1600 Through the Twentieth Century, vol. 2 (New York, 2000), p. 205.

  19 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 49.

  20 Rudyard Kipling, From Sea to Sea: Letters of Travel (New York, 1920), P.274.

  21 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 297.

  22 Hao Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China, 1890 – 1907 (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), p. 60.

  23 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 49.

  24 Ibid., p. 45.

  25 Ibid., p. 44.

  26 Theodore Huters, Bringing the World Home: Appropriating the West in Late Qing and Early Republican China (Hawaii, 2005), p. 50.

  27 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 37.

  28 Julia Lovell, The Opium War (London, 2011), p. 298.

  29 Benjamin Schwartz, In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), p. 55.

  30 Lovell, The Opium War, p. 298.

  31 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 30.

  32 Ibid., p. 33.

  33 Ibid., p. 116.

  34 Ibid., p. 83.

  35 Ibid., p. 117.

  36 Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, p. 241.

  37 Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (eds.), Pan Asianism: A Documentary History, Vol. 1, 1850 – 1920 (Lanham, Md., 2011), p. 166.

  38 Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, p. 241.

  39 Prasenjit Duara, ‘Asia Redux: conceptualizing a region for our times’, Journal of Asian Studies, 69, 4 (November 2010), p. 971.

  40 Rebecca E. Karl, ‘Creating Asia: China in the world at the beginning of the twentieth century’, American Historical Review, 103, 4 (Oct. 1998), pp. 1115 – 16.

  41 Ibid., p. 1107

  42 Ibid., p. 1108.

  43 Rebecca E. Karl, Staging the World: Chinese Nationalism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Durham, N.C., 2002), p. 141.

  44 Ibid., p. 89.

  45 Hao Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China, p. 164.

  46 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 117.

  47 Madhavi Thampi (ed.), Indians in China, 1800 – 1949 (Delhi, 2010), p. 160.

  48 Robert Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann (eds.), The Boxers, China and the World (Lanham, Md., 2007), p. 57.

  49 Jasper Becker, City of Heavenly Tranquility: Beijing in the History of China (Oxford, 2008), p. 115.

  50 Aurobindo Ghose, Bande Mataram, Early Political Writings, vol. 1 (Pondicherry, 1972.), p. 312.

  51 Edgar Snow, Red Star Over China (Harmondsworth, 1972), p. 159.

  52 Tsou Jung, The Revolutionary Army: A Chinese Nationalist Tract of 1903, trans. John Lust (Paris, 1968), pp. 58 – 9.

  53 De Bary, Lufrano, Wing-tsit Chan and Adler (eds.), Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. 2, p. 312.

  54 Hao Chang, Chinese Intellectuals in Crisis: Search for Order and Meaning (1890 – 1911) (Berkeley, 1987), p. 113.

  55 De Bary, Lufrano, Wing-tsit Chan and Adler (eds.), Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. 2, p. 313.

  56 Zhang Yongle, ‘The future of the past: on Wang Hui’s rise of modern Chinese thought’, New Left Review, 62 (2008), p. 81.

  57 Jonathan Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and their Revolution, 1895 – 1980 (New York, 1982), p. 74.

  58 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 121.

  59 Ibid., p. 116.

  60 David G. Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885 – 1925 (Berkeley, 1971), p. 121.

  61 Lu Xun, Diary of a Madman and Other Stories, trans. William A. Lyell (Hawaii, 1990), p. 23.

  62 Stephane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu and Yasushi Kosugi (eds.), Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication (New York, 2006), p. 278.

  63 Ibid., p. 277.

  64 Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, p. 137.

  65 Ibid., p. 114.

  66 William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1972), p. 72.

  67 R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee (eds.), Land Without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley, 1989), p. 87.

  68 Ibid., p. 89.

  69 Ibid., p. 90.

  70 Hao Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China, P. 245.

  71 Arkush and Lee (eds.), Land Without Ghosts, p. 91.

  72 Ibid.

  73 Benoy Kumar Sarkar, ‘Americanization from the viewpoint of young Asia’, The Journal of International Relations, 10, 1 (July 1919), p. 42.

  74 Arkush and Lee (eds.), Land Without Ghosts, pp. 61 – 2, 65.

  75 Ibid., p. 92.

  76 Ibid., p. 83.

  77 Ibid., p. 93.

  78 Jerome B. Greider, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China: A Narrative History (New York, 1981), p. 167.

  79 Pierson, Tokutomi Soh, p. 267.

  80 Hao Chang, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and Intellectual Transition in China, p. 269.

  81 Ibid., p. 270.

  82 Huters, Bringing the World Home, p. 20.

  83 Philip Short, Mao: A Life (London, 2004), p. 79.

  84 Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace, p. 144.

  85 Peter Zarrow, China in War and Revolution, 1895 – 1949 (New York, 2005), p. 135.

  86 Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace, p. 142.

  4. 1919, ‘CHANGING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD’

  1 http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/wilson1917inauguration.htm.

  2 Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York, 2009), p. 21.

  3 Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York, 1997), p.136.

  4 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 45.

  5 Ibid., p. 71.

  6 Stéphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu and Yasushi Kosugi (eds.), Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication (New York, 2006), p. 190.

  7 Iqbal Husain, ‘Akbar Allahabadi and national politics’, Social Scientist, 16, 5 (May 1988), p. 38.

  8 Iqbal Singh, The Ardent Pilgrim: An Introdu
ction to the Life and Work of Mohammed Iqbal (Karachi, 1997), p. 39.

  9 Amiya Dev and Tan Chung (eds.), Tagore and China (Delhi, 2011), p. 190.

  10 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, pp. 91 – 2.

  11 Jean Lacoutre, Ho Chi Minh (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 35.

  12 Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (eds.), Pan Asianism: A Documentary History, Vol. 1, 1850 – 1920 (Lanham, Md., 2011), p. 136.

  13 Benoy Kumar Sarkar, ‘The international fetters of young China’, The Journal of International Relations, 11, 3 (Jan. 1921), p. 355.

  14 Geoffrey Barraclough, An Introduction to Contemporary History (Harmondsworth, 1967), p. 215.

  15 Ibid., p. 176.

  16 Sarkar, ‘The international fetters of young China’, p. 355.

  17 William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York, 1972), p. 72.

  18 Benoy Kumar Sarkar, ‘Americanization from the viewpoint of young Asia’, The Journal of International Relations, 10, 1 (July 1919), p. 47.

  19 Ibid.

  20 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 29.

  21 McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State, p.127.

  22 Ibid.

  23 David Fromkin, In the Time of the Americans: FDR, Truman, Eisenhower, Marshall, MacArthur – The Generation That Changed America’s Role in the World (New York, 1996), p.143.

  24 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 137.

  25 Jonathan Clements, Prince Saionji (London, 2008), p. 120.

  26 Ibid., p. 32.

  27 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 75.

  28 Hugh Purcell, The Maharaja of Bikaner (London, 2010), p. 27.

  29 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 194.

  30 Ibid., p. 149.

  31 Christopher De Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia: Muhammad Mossadegh and a Very British Coup (London, 2012), p. 53.

  32 Lacoutre, Ho Chi Minh, p. 32.

  33 Krishna Dutta and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man (London, 1995), p. 216.

  34 Kedar Nath Mukherjee, Political Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore (Delhi, 1982), p. 43.

  35 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 217.

  36 Dudoignon, Komatsu and Kosugi (eds.), Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World, p. 62.

  37 M. ükrü Hanioglu, Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton, 2011), p. 91.

  38 Cemil Aydin, The Politics of Anti-Westernism: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought (New York, 2007), p. 134.

  39 Haniolu, Atatürk, p. 57.

  40 Charles Kurzman (ed.), Modernist Islam, 1840 – 1940: A Sourcebook (New York, 2002), p. 8.

  41 Jonathan Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and their Revolution, 1895 – 1980 (New York, 1982), p. 172.

  42 Jonathan Clements, Wellington Koo (London, 2008), p. 95.

  43 Guoqi Xu, China and the Great War: China’s Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization (Cambridge, 2005), p. 271.

  44 Ibid., p. 273.

  45 Tse-tsung Chow, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), p. 127.

  46 Deng Maomao, Deng Xiaoping: My Father (New York, 1995), p. 81.

  47 Ibid., p. 61.

  48 John Fitzgerald, Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution (Stanford, 1996), p. 93.

  49 Manela, The Wilsonian Moment, p. 190.

  50 Ibid.

  51 Clements, Wellington Koo, p. 96.

  52 Stuart R. Schram (ed.), Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings 1912 – 1949. Vol. 1, The Pre-Marxist Period, 1912 – 1920 (New York, 1992), p. 389.

  53 Paul Valéry, The Outlook for Intelligence (New York, 1963), p. 115.

  54 Xiaobing Tang, Global Space and the Nationalist Discourse of Modernity: The Historical Thinking of Liang Qichao (Stanford, 1996), p. 177.

  55 Spence, The Gate of Heavenly Peace, p. 152.

  56 Jerome B. Greider, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China: A Narrative History (New York, 1981), p. 252.

  57 Dev and Tan (eds.), Tagore and China (Delhi, 2011), p. 79.

  58 Aurobindo Ghose, Bande Mataram, Early Political Writings, vol. 1 (Pondicherry, 1972), p. 561.

  59 Ibid., p. 422.

  60 Muhammad Iqbal, A Message From the East [Payam-e-Mashriq], trans. M. Hadi Hussain (first published 1924; Lahore, 1977), pp. 90 – 91.

  61 Joseph R. Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), p. 203.

  62 Ibid., p. 200.

  63 W. Franke, China and the West (Oxford, 1967), p. 124.

  64 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 207.

  65 Ibid., p. 201.

  66 Greider, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China, p. 254.

  67 Levenson, Liang Ch’i-ch’ao and the Mind of Modern China, p. 203.

  68 Kakuzo Okakura, The Book of Tea (New York, 1906), p. 4.

  69 Greider, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China, p. 23.

  70 Bertrand Russell, The Problem of China (London, 1922), p. 194.

  71 Greider, Intellectuals and the State in Modern China, p. 263.

  72 William Theodore De Bary, Richard John Lufrano, Wing-tsit Chan and Joseph Adler (eds.), Sources of Chinese Tradition, From 1600 Through the Twentieth Century, vol. 2 (New York, 2000), p. 322.

  73 Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (eds.), Pan Asianism: A Documentary History, Vol. 2, 1920 – Present (Lanham, Md., 2011), p. 81.

  74 Ibid., pp. 188 – 90.

  5. RABINDRANATH TAGORE IN EAST ASIA, THE MAN FROM THE LOST COUNTRY

  1 Rebecca E. Karl, ‘China in the world at the beginning of the twentieth century’, American Historical Review, 103, 4 (Oct. 1998), p. 1110.

  2 Rabindranath Tagore, Letters to a Friend (Delhi, 2002), p. 110.

  3 Aurobindo Ghose, Bande Mataram, Early Political Writings, vol. 1 (Pondicherry, 1972), p. 820.

  4 Ibid., p. 931.

  5 Tapan Raychaudhuri, Europe Reconsidered: Perceptions of the West in Nineteenth-century Bengal (Delhi, 2002), p. 275.

  6 Tapan Raychaudhuri, Perceptions, Emotions, Sensibilities: Essays on India’s Colonial and Post-colonial Experiences (Delhi, 1999), p. 36.

  7 Raychaudhuri, Europe Reconsidered, p. 77.

  8 Ghose, Bande Mataram, viol.1, p. 362.

  9 Ibid., p. 550.

  10 Amiya Dev and Tan Chung (eds.), Tagore and China (Delhi, 2011), p. 242.

  11 Robert Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann (eds.), The Boxers, China and the World (Lanham, Md., 2007), p. 148.

  12 Dev and Tan (eds.), Tagore and China, p. 170.

  13 Stephen N. Hay, Asian Ideas of East and West: Tagore and his Critics in Japan, China, and India (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), p. 32.

  14 Mohit Kumar Ray (ed.), The English Writings of Rabindranath Tagore, vol. 4 (Delhi, 2007), p. 443.

  15 Ibid., p. 631.

  16 Ibid., p. 496.

  17 Gandhi, Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, ed. Anthony Parel (Cambridge, 1997), p. xxii.

  18 Aurobindo Ghose, Early Cultural Writings, vol. 1 (Pondicherry, 2003), p. 545.

  19 Dev and Tan (eds.), Tagore and China, p. 35.

  20 Krishna Dutta and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man (London, 1995) p. 202.

  21 Hay, Asian Ideas of East and West, p. 43.

  22 Sven Saaler and Christopher W. A. Szpilman (eds.), Pan Asianism: A Documentary History, Vol. 1, 1850 – 1920 (Lanham, Md., 2011), p. 96.

  23 Ibid., p. 98.

  24 Dev and Tan (eds.), Tagore and China, p. 349.

  25 Ibid., p. 343.

  26 David Wolff and John W. Steinberg (eds.), The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero (Leiden, 2007), p. 478.