Madness Explained

by Richard P. Bental

  80. P. Sedgwick (1982) Psychopolitics. London: Pluto Press.

  81. K. W. M. Fulford (2002) ‘Values in psychiatric diagnosis: executive summary of a report to the chair of the ICD-12/DSM-VI coordination taskforce (dateline 2010)’, Psychopathology, 35: 132–8.

  82. T. L. Beauchamp and J. F. Childress (1979) Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; R. Gillon (1985) Philsophical Medical Ethics. London: Wiley.

  Chapter 8 Mental Life and Human Nature

  1. L. Wittgenstein (1980) Culture and Value (trans. P. Winch). Oxford: Blackwell.

  2. D. Shakow and P. E. Huston (1936) ‘Studies of motor function in schizophrenia: I. Speed of tapping’, Journal of General Psychology, 15: 63–108.

  3. A. J. W. van der Does and R. J. van den Bosch (1992) ‘What determines Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia?’, Clinical Psychology Review, 12: 567–83.

  4. W.-C. C. Tam, K. W. Sewell and H.-W. Deng (1998) ‘Information processing in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a discriminant analysis’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186: 597–603.

  5. A. S. Bellack, K. T. Mueser, R. L. Morrison, A. Tierney and K. Podell (1990) ‘Remediation of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 147: 1650–5; M. F. Green, P. Satz, S. Ganzell and J. F. Vaclav (1992) ‘Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: remediation of a stubborn deficit’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 149:62–7; H. Nisbet, R. Siegert, M. Hunt and N. Fairley (1996) ‘Improving schizophrenic in-patients’ Wisconsin card-sorting performance’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35: 631–3.

  6. H. E. Spohn and M. E. Strauss (1989) ‘Relation of neuroleptic and anticholinergic medication to cognitive functions in schizophrenia’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98: 367–80.

  7. L. J. Chapman and J. P. Chapman (1973) Disordered Thought in Schizophrenia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

  8. R. P. Bentall (1992) ‘Psychological deficits and biases in psychiatric disorders’, Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 5: 825–30.

  9. E. Kraepelin (1899/1990) Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians. Vol. 1: General Psychiatry. Canton, MA: Watson Publishing International, p. 89.

  10. A. McGhie and J. Chapman (1961) ‘Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 34: 103–16.

  11. See, for example, Chapman and Chapman, Disordered Thought, op. cit.

  12. T. F. Oltmanns and J. M. Neale (1978) ‘Distractability in relation to other aspects of schizophrenic disorder’, in S. Schwartz (ed.), Language and Cognition in Schizophrenia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

  13. M. R. Serper, M. Davidson and P. Harvey (1994) ‘Attentional predictors of clinical change during neuroleptic treatment in schizophrenia’, Schizophrenia Research, 13: 65–71.

  14. M. F. Green (1992) ‘Information processing in schizophrenia’, in D. J. Kavanagh (ed.), Schizophrenia: An Overview and Practical Handbook. London: Chapman and Hall.

  15. K. H. Nuechterlein, R. Parasuraman and Q. Jiang (1983) ‘Visual sustained attention: image degradation produces rapid sensitivity decrement over time’, Science, 220: 327–9. See also K. H. Nuechterlein (1991) ‘Vigilance in schizophrenia and related disorders’, in S. R. Steinhauer, J. H. Gruzelier and J. Zubin (eds.), Handbook of Schizophrenia, Vol. 5: Neuropsychology, Psychophysiology, and Information Processing. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

  16. K. H. Nuechterlein, W. S. Edell, M. Norris and M. E. Dawson (1986) ‘Attentional vulnerability indicators, thought disorder and negative symptoms’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 12: 408–26; R. W. Buchanan, M. E. Strauss, A. Breier, B. Kirkpatrick and W. T. Carpenter (1997) ‘Attentional impairments in deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 154: 363–70.

  17. Green, ‘Information processing in schizophrenia’, op. cit.

  18. D. P. Saccuzzo and D. L. Braff (1981) ‘Early information processing deficit in schizophrenia’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 38: 175–9.

  19. D. L. Braff and D. P. Saccuzzo (1982) ‘Effect of antipsychotic medication on speed of information processing in schizophrenia patients’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 139: 1127–30.

  20. K. H. Nuechterlein and K. L. Subotnik (1998) ‘The cognitive origins of schizophrenia and prospects for intervention’, in T. Wykes, N. Tarrier and S. Lewis (eds.), Outcome and Innovation in Psychological Treatment of Schizophrenia. Chichester: Wiley.

  21. T. F. Oltmanns (1978) ‘Selective attention in schizophrenic and manic psychoses: the effect of distraction on information processing’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87: 212–25.

  22. K. Fleming and M. F. Green (1995) ‘Backward masking performance during and after manic episodes’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104: 63–8.

  23. M. R. Serper (1993) ‘Visual controlled information processing resources and formal thought disorder in schizophrenia and mania’, Schizophrenia Research, 9: 59–66; J. McGrath, B. Chapple and M. Wright (1998) ‘Working memory in schizophrenia and mania: acute and subacute phases’, Schizophrenia Research, 29: 48.

  24. K. Nuechterlein, M. Dawson, J. Ventura, D. Miklowitz and G. Konishi (1991) ‘Information processing abnormalities in the early course of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder’, Schizophrenia Research, 5:195–6; K. W. Sax, S. M. Strakowski, S. L. McElroy, P. E. Keck and S. A. West (1995) ‘Attention and formal thought disorder in mixed and pure mania’, Biological Psychiatry, 37: 420–23.

  25. E. B. Nelson, K. W. Sax and S. M. Strakowski (1998) ‘Attentional performance in patients with psychotic and nonpsychotic major depression and schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 155: 137–9.

  26. M. F. Green (1998) Schizophrenia from a Neurocognitive Perspective: Probing the Impenetrable Darkness. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

  27. H. J. Jerison (1985) ‘On the evolution of mind’, in D. A. Oakley (ed.), Brain and Mind. London: Methuen.

  28. R. I. M. Dunbar (1993) ‘Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16: 681–735.

  29. L. Brothers (1997) Friday’s Footprint: How Society Shapes the Human Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  30. J. Le Doux (1996) The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. New York: Simon & Schuster.

  31. J. Piaget and B. Inhelder (1956) The Child’s Conception of Space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

  32. M. Donaldson (1978) Children’s Minds. London: Fontana.

  33. F. Happé (1994) Autism: An Introduction to Psychological Theory. London: University College London Press.

  34. S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg and D. J. Cohen (1993) Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from Autism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  35. P. Hobson (2002) The Cradle of Thought. London: Macmillan.

  36. M. Boyes, R. Giorano and M. Pool (1997) ‘Internalization of social discourse: a Vygotskian account of the development of young children’s theories of mind’, in B. D. Cox and C. Lightfoot (eds.), Sociogenetic Perspectives on Internalization. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

  37. Happé, Autism, op. cit.

  38. S. Baron-Cohen (1995) Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  39. J. A. Fodor (1983) The Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  40. P. Nichelli, J. Grafman, P. Pietrini, D. Alway, J. C. Carton and R. Miletich (1994) ‘Brain activity in chess playing’, Nature, 369: 191.

  41. J. L. Elman, E. A. Bates, M. H. Johnson, A. Karmiloff-Smith, D. Parisi and K. Plunkett (1999) Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  42. D. Bickerton (1995) Language and Human Behaviour. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.

  43. E. Hoff (2000) Language Development (2nd edn). London: Wadsworth.

  44. S. Pinker (1994) The Language Instinct. London: Penguin.

  45. R. I. M. Dunbar (1997) Grooming, Gossi
p and the Evolution of Language. London: Faber & Faber.

  46. S. Pinker and P. Bloom (1990) ‘Natural language and natural selection’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13: 707–84.

  47. L. S. V. Vygotsky (1962) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  48. J. V. Wetsch and C. A. Stone (1985) ‘The concept of internalization in Vygotsky’s account of the genesis of internal mental functions’, in J. V. Wertsch (ed.), Culture, Communication and Cognition: Vygotskyian Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 162–79.

  49. J. Piaget (1926) The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

  50. R. M. Diaz and L. E. Berk (eds.) (1992) Private Speech: From Social Integration to Self-Regulation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

  51. L. E. Berk (1994) ‘Why children talk to themselves’, Scientific American, November: 61–5.

  52. K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon (1998) ‘How to study thinking in everyday life: contrasting think-aloud protocols with descriptions and explanations of thinking’, Mind, Culture and Activity, 5: 178–86.

  53. R. J. Korba (1990) ‘The rate of inner speech’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 71: 1043–52.

  54. A. Morin and J. Everett (1990) ‘Inner speech as a mediator of self-awareness, self-consciousness and self-knowledge: an hypothesis’, New Ideas in Psychology, 8: 337–56.

  55. I have been unable to find recent reviews of the subvocalization literature, which has been largely ignored by modern cognitive psychologists. However, for a detailed account of the large volume of research conducted on this topic before the mid-1970s, see F. J. McGuigan (1978) Cognitive Psychophysiology: Principles of Covert Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

  56. F. J. McGuigan (1971) ‘Covert linguistic behavior in deaf subjects during thinking’, Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 75: 417–20.

  57. J. T. Cacioppo (1982) ‘Social psychophysiology: a classic perspective and contemporary approach’, Psychophysiology, 19: 241–51; J. T. Cacioppo and R. E. Petty (1981) ‘Electromyograms as measures of extent of affectivity and information processing’, American Psychologist, 36: 441–56.

  58. R. F. Baumeister (1999) ‘The nature and structure of the self: an overview’, in R. F. Baumeister (ed.), The Self in Social Psychology. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, pp. 1–20.

  59. D. C. Dennett (1991) Consciousness Explained. London: Allen Lane.

  60. S. T. Fiske and S. E. Taylor (1991). Social Cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

  61. C. Trevarthen (1993) ‘The self born in intersubjectivity: the psychology of an infant communicating’, in U. Neisser (ed.), The Perceived Self: Ecological and Interpersonal Sources of Self-Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  62. R. F. Baumeister (1987) ‘How the self became a problem: a psychological review of historical research’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 163–76.

  63. A. P. Cohen (1994) Self-Conscious: An Alternative Anthropology of Identity. London: Routledge.

  64. H. Markus and S. Kitayama (1991) ‘Culture and the self: implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation’, Psychological Review, 98: 224–53.

  65. T. T. J. Kircher, C. Senior, M. Phillips, P. J. Benson, E. T. Bullmore, M. Brammer, A. Simmons, S. C. R. Williams and A. S. David (2000) ‘Towards a functional neuroanatomy of self-processing effects of faces and words’, Cognition and Brain Research, 10: 133–44; T. T. J. Kircher, C. Senior, M. Phillips, S. Rabe-Hesketh, P. J. Benson, E. T. Bullmore, M. Brammer, A. Simmons, M. Bartels and A. S. David (2000) ‘Recognizing one’s own face’, Cognition, 78: B1–B15.

  66. T. J. Crow (1998) ‘Nuclear schizophrenic symptoms as the key to the evolution of modern homo sapiens’, in S. Rose (ed.), From Brains to Consciousness: Essays on the New Sciences of the Mind. London: Penguin, pp. 137–53.

  67. For a review, see D. L. Penn, P. W. Corrigan, R. P. Bentall, J. M. Racenstein and L. Newman (1997) ‘Social cognition in schizophrenia’, Psychological Bulletin, 121: 114–32.

  68. M. Musalek, P. Berner and H. Katschnig (1989) ‘Delusional theme, sex and age’, Psychopathology, 22: 260–7.

  Chapter 9 Madness and Emotion

  1. D. Hume (1739–40/1888) A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  2. D. Goldberg and P. Huxley (1992) Common Mental Disorders: A Bio-social Model. London: Routledge.

  3. S. G. Siris (1995) ‘Depression and schizophrenia’, in S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger (eds.), Schizophrenia. Oxford: Blackwell.

  4. J. D. Huppert and T. E. Smith (2001) ‘Longitudinal analysis of subjective quality of life in schizophrenia: anxiety as the best symptom predictor’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189: 669–75; R. Emsley, P. Oosthuizen, D. Niehaus and D. Stein (2001) ‘Anxiety symptoms in schizophrenia: the need for heightened clinical awareness’, Primary Care Psychiatry, 7: 25–9.

  5. R. M. G. Norman and A. K. Malla (1991) ‘Dysphoric mood and symptomatology in schizophrenia’, Psychological Medicine, 21: 897–903.

  6. M. I. Herz and C. Melville (1980) ‘Relapse in schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 127: 801–12.

  7. M. Birchwood, J. Smith, F. Macmillan, B. Hogg, R. Prasad, C. Harvey and S. Bering (1989) ‘Predicting relapse in schizophrenia: the development and implementation of an early signs monitoring system using patients and families as observers’, Psychological Medicine, 19: 649–56.

  8. N. M. Docherty (1996) ‘Affective reactivity of symptoms as a process discriminator in schizophrenia’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184: 535–41.

  9. M. Power and T. Dalgleish (1996) Cognition and Emotion: From Order to Disorder. London: Psychology Press.

  10. R. Zajonc (1980) ‘Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences’, American Psychologist, 35: 151–75.

  11. R. S. Lazarus (1984) ‘On the primacy of cognition’, American Psychologist, 39: 124–9.

  12. A. Sloman (1987) ‘Motives, mechanisms and emotions’, Cognition and Emotion, 1: 217–33.

  13. A. Mellers, A. Schwartz, K. Ho and I. Ritov (1997) ‘Decision affect theory: emotional reactions to outcomes of risky options’, Psychological Science, 8: 423–9.

  14. L. C. Charland (1998) ‘Is Mr. Spock mentally competent?’ Philosophy, Psychiatry and Psychology, 5: 67–80.

  15. J. Tooby and L. Cosmides (1990) ‘The past explains the present: emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments’, Ethology and Sociobiology, 11: 375–424.

  16. P. Gilbert (1992) Depression: The Evolution of Powerlessness. Hove: Erlbaum.

  17. See, for example, I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1970) Ethology: The Biology of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; or P. Ekman (1992) ‘An argument for basic emotions’, Cognition and Emotion, 6: 169–200.

  18. See, for example, Ekman, ‘An argument for basic emotions’, op. cit.; and also P. Ekman (1994) ‘Strong evidence for universals in facial expression: a reply to Russell’s mistaken critique’, Psychological Bulletin, 115: 268–87.

  19. J. A. Russell (1994) ‘Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies’, Psychological Bulletin, 115: 102–41.

  20. B. F. Skinner (1945) ‘The operational analysis of psychological terms’, Psychological Review, 52: 270–7.

  21. W. James (1890) The Principles of Psychology (2 vols). New York: George Holt.

  22. D. Zillman, R. C. Johnson and K. D. Day (1974) ‘Attribution of apparent arousal and proficiency of recovery from sympathetic activation affecting excitation transfer to aggressive behavior’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10: 503–15.

  23. W. Winton (1986) ‘The role of facial response in self-reports of emotion: a critique of Laird’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50: 808–12.

  24. R. B. Zajonc, S. T. Murphy and M. Ingelhart (1989) ‘Feeling and facial efference: implications of the vascular feeling of emotion’, Psychological Review, 96: 395–416.

  25. See, fo
r example, Power and Dalgleish, Cognition and Emotion, op. cit.

  26. L. Wittgenstein (1953) Philosophical Investigations. London: Blackwell. See also D. Bloor (1983) Wittgenstein: A Social Theory of Knowledge. London: Macmillan (especially Chapter 4) for a very clear exposition of Wittgenstein’s approach to private stimuli.

  27. Skinner, ‘The operational analysis of psychological terms’, op. cit.

  28. G. Richards (1989) On Psychological Language and the Physiomorphic Basis of Human Nature. London: Routledge.

  29. G. E. Berrios (1995) ‘Mood disorders’, in G. E. Berrios and R. Porter (eds.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry. London: Athlone Press.