Madness Explained

by Richard P. Bental

  46. For an empirical demonstration that Higgins’s self-guide and Beck’s self-schema concepts are highly correlated, see N. Fair brother and M. Moretti (1998) ‘Sociotropy, autonomy and self-discrepancy: status in depressed, remitted depressed, and control participants’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 22: 279–96.

  47. A. N. Weissman and A. T. Beck (1978) ‘Development and validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale’, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago. For a review of the scale’s advantages and disadvantages, see J. M. G. Williams (1992) The Psychological Treatment of Depression (2nd edn). London: Routledge.

  48. Z. V. Segal and R. E. Ingram (1994) ‘Mood priming and construct activation in tests of cognitive vulnerability to unipolar depression’, Clinical Psychology Review, 14: 663–95.

  49. Williams et al., ‘Dysfunctional attitudes’, op. cit.

  50. Alloy et al., ‘Depressogenic cognitive styles’, op. cit.

  51. A. T. Beck (1983) ‘Cognitive therapy of depression: new perspectives’, in P. J. Clayton and J. E. Barrett (eds.), Treatment of Depression: Old Controversies and New Approaches. New York: Raven Press.

  52. S. J. Blatt, D. Quinlan, E. Chevron, C. McDonald and D. Zurroff (1982) ‘Dependency and self-criticism: psychological dimensions of depression’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50: 113–24.

  53. I. H. Gotlib and C. L. Hammen (1992) Psychological Aspects of Depression: Towards a Cognitive-Interpersonal Integration. Chichester: Wiley.

  54. H. H. Kelley (1967) ‘Attribution theory in social psychology’, in D. Levine (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol. 15. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 192–240.

  55. Quoted in M. Gilbert (1996) The Boys: Triumph over Adversity. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

  56. G. L. Flett, P. Pliner and K. R. Blankstein (1995) ‘Preattributional dimensions in self-esteem and depressive symptomatology’, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10: 101–22.

  57. W. Ickes and M. A. Layden (1978) ‘Attributional styles’, in J. H. Harvey, W. Ickes and R. F. Kidd (eds.), New Directions in Attribution Research, vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 119–92.

  58. R. P. Bentall, P. Kinderman and K. Bowen-Jones (1999) ‘Response latencies for the causal attributions of depressed, paranoid and normal individuals: availability of self-representations’, Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 4: 107–18.

  59. J. P. Forgas, G. H. Bower and S. J. Moylan (1990) ‘Praise or blame? Affective influences on attributions for achievement’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 809–19.

  60. R. P. Bentall and S. Kaney (in submission) ‘Attributional lability in depression and paranoia: psychopathology and the attribution–self-representation cycle’.

  61. Zullow et al., ‘Pessimistic explanatory style in the historical record’, op. cit.

  62. Peterson et al., ‘Attributions and depressive mood shifts’, op. cit.

  63. Kernis, ‘The role of stability and level of self-esteem’, op. cit.

  64. Taylor, Positive Illusions, op. cit.

  65. Campbell and Sedikides, ‘Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias’, op. cit.; S. E. Taylor, E. Neter and H. A. Wayment (1995) ‘Self-evaluation processes’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21: 1278–87.

  66. D. Dunning, A. Leuenberger and D. A. Sherman (1995) ‘A new look at motivated inference: are self-serving theories of success a product of motivational forces?’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 58–68.

  67. C. Sedikides, W. K. Campbell, G. D. Reeder and A. J. Elliot (1998) ‘The self-serving bias in relational context’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 378–86.

  68. S. Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) ‘Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressed mood’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100: 569–82.

  69. J. Scott, B. Stanton, A. Garland and N. Ferrier (2000) ‘Cognitive vulnerability in patients with bipolar disorder’, Psychological Medicine, 30: 467–72; J. A. Sweeney, J. A. Kmiec and D. J. Kupfer (2000) ‘Neuropsychologic impairments in bipolar and unipolar mood disorders on the CANTAB neurocognitive battery’, Biological Psychiatry, 48: 674–84.

  70. S. Lyubomirsky, N. D. Caldwell and S. Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) ‘Effects of ruminative and distracting responses to depressed mood on retrieval of autobiographical memories’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 166–77.

  71. S. Lyubomirsky and S. Nolen-Hoeksema (1995) ‘Effects of self-focused rumination on negative thinking and interpersonal problem solving’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 176–90.

  72. S. Nolen-Hoeksema and J. Morrow (1991) ‘A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 115–21.

  73. N. Just and L. B. Alloy (1997) ‘The response styles theory of depression: tests and an extension of the theory’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106: 221–9.

  74. S. Nolen-Hoeksema, A. McBride and J. Larson (1997) ‘Rumination and psychological distress among bereaved partners’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72: 855–62.

  75. S. Nolen-Hoeksema, L. E. Parker and J. Larson (1994) ‘Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 92–104.

  76. C. L. Rusting and S. Nolen-Hoeksema (1998) ‘Regulating responses to anger: effects of rumination and distraction on angry mood’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 790–803.

  77. S. Nolen-Hoeksema (2000) ‘The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 504–11.

  78. R. J. Davidson (1999) ‘Neuropsychological perspectives on affective styles and their cognitive consequences’, in T. Dalgleish and M. Power (eds.), Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. London: Wiley, pp. 103–23.

  79. Described in I. H. Gotlib and L. Y. Abramson (1999) ‘Attributional theories of emotion’, in Dalgleish and Power (eds.), Handbook, op. cit., pp. 615–36.

  80. D. Healy (1987) ‘Rhythm and blues: neurochemical, neuropharmacological and neuropsychological implications of a hypothesis of circadian rhythm dysfunction in the affective disorders’, Psychopharmacology, 93: 271–85.

  81. D. Healy (1997) The Anti-Depressant Era. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

  82. T. H. Monk, D. J. Kupfer, E. Frank and A. Ritenour (1991) ‘The social rhythm metric (SRM): measuring daily social rhythms over 12 weeks’, Psychiatry Research, 36: 195–207; M. P. Szuba, A. Yager, B. Guze, E. Allen and L. R. Baxter (1992) ‘Disruption of social circadian rhythms in major depression: a preliminary report’, Psychiatry Research, 42: 221–30.

  83. D. Healy and J. M. Waterhouse (1995) ‘The circadian system and the therapeutics of affective disorders’, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 65: 241–63.

  Chapter 11 A Colourful Malady

  1. V. Woolf (1978) The Letters of Virginia Woolf, Vol. 4: 1929–1931, ed. N. Nicholson and J. Trautmann. London: Hogarth Press.

  2. K. R. Jamison (1996) An Unquiet Mind. London: Picador.

  3. A. H. Weingartner, H. Miller and D. L. Murphy (1977) ‘Mood-state-dependent retrieval of verbal associations’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86: 276–84.

  4. J. M. G. Williams and H. Markar (1991) ‘Money hidden and rediscovered in subsequent manic phases: a case of state-dependent re-enactment’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 159: 579–81.

  5. G. M. Davidson (1957) ‘Manic-depressive psychosis: theory and practice’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 125: 87–95.

  6. F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  7. S. L. McElroy, P. E. Keck, H. G. Pope, J. I. Hudson, G. L. Faedda and A. C. Swann (1992) ‘Clinical and research implications of the diagnosis of dysphoric or mixed mania or hypomania’, American Journal of Psychia
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  8. G. A. Carlson and F. K. Goodwin (1973) ‘The stages of mania’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 28: 221–8.

  9. F. Cassidy, K. Forest, M. Murry and B. J. Carroll (1998) ‘A factor analysis of the signs and symptoms of mania’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 55: 27–32.

  10. N. C. Andreasen (1979) ‘Thought, language and communication disorders: diagnostic significance’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 36: 1325–30.

  11. E. Jones (1962) The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (abridged edition). London: Hogarth Press.

  12. K. Abraham (1911/1927) ‘Notes on the psychoanalytic investigation and treatment of manic-depressive insanity and allied conditions’, in E. Jones (ed.), Selected Papers of Karl Abraham. London: Hogarth.

  13. S. Rado (1928) ‘The problem of melancholia’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 9: 420–38.

  14. This position was taken, for example, by H. J. Eysenck in a series of books and papers published throughout his career, including H. J. Eysenck and G. D. Wilson (eds.) (1973) The Experimental Study of Freudian Theories. London: Methuen; and H. J. Eysenck (1985) The Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

  15. J. M. Neale (1988) ‘Defensive function of manic episodes’, in T. F. Oltmanns and B. A. Maher (eds.), Delusional Beliefs. New York: Wiley.

  16. D. Lam and G. Wong (1997) ‘Prodromes, coping strategies, insight and social functioning in bipolar affective disorder’, Psychological Medicine, 27: 1091–100; J. A. Smith and N. Tarrier (1992) ‘Prodromal symptoms in manic depressive psychosis’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 27: 245–8; G. Wong and D. Lam (1999) ‘The development and validation of the coping inventory for prodromes of mania’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 53: 57–65.

  17. G. Fava (1999) ‘Subclinical symptoms in mood disorders’, Psychological Medicine, 29: 47–61; G. I. Keitner, D. A. Solomon, C. E. Ryan, I. W. Miller and A. Mallinger (1996) ‘Prodromal and residual symptoms in bipolar I disorder’, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37: 362–7.

  18. K. C. Winters and J. M. Neale (1985) ‘Mania and low self-esteem’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94: 282–90.

  19. D. P. Crowne and D. Marlowe (1960) ‘A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology’, Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24: 349–54.

  20. J. Scott, B. Stanton, A. Garland and N. Ferrier (2000) ‘Cognitive vulnerability in patients with bipolar disorder’, Psychological Medicine, 30: 467–72.

  21. J. R. Stroop (1935) ‘Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions’, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18: 643–62.

  22. I. H. Gotlib and C. D. McCann (1984) ‘Construct accessibility and depression’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47: 427–39; J. M. G. Williams and K. Broadbent (1986) ‘Distraction by emotional stimuli: use of a Stroop task with suicide attempters’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 25: 101–10.

  23. S. Channon, D. R. Hemsley and P. de Silva (1988) ‘Selective processing of food words in anorexia nervosa’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27: 259–60.

  24. A. M. Mathews and C. MacLeod (1985) ‘Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states’, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23: 563–9.

  25. R. P. Bentall and M. Thompson (1990) ‘Emotional Stroop performance and the manic defence’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29: 235–7.

  26. C. C. French, A. Richards and E. J. C. Scholfield (1996) ‘Hypomania, anxiety and the emotional Stroop’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35: 617–26.

  27. R. P. Bentall, J. Highfield and T. Woodnut (in preparation) ‘Self-esteem fluctuations and vulnerability to bipolar symptoms’.

  28. M. H. Kernis (1993) ‘The role of stability and level of self-esteem in psychological functioning’, in R. F. Baumeister (ed.), Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. New York: Plenum, pp. 167–82.

  29. N. A. Reilly-Harrington, L. B. Alloy, D. M. Fresco and W. G. Whitehouse (1999) ‘Cognitive style and life events interact to predict bipolar and unipolar symptomatology’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108: 567–78.

  30. S. L. Johnson, B. Meyer, C. Winett and J. Small (2000) ‘Social support and self-esteem predict changes in bipolar depression but not mania’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 58: 79–86.

  31. Personal communication from J. Scott.

  32. H. Lyon, M. Startup and R. P. Bentall (1999) ‘Social cognition and the manic defense’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108: 273–82.

  33. C. M. Ashworth, I. M. Blackburn and F. M. McPherson (1982) ‘The performance of depressed and manic patients on some repertory grid measures’, British Journal of Medical Psychology, 55: 247–55; S. E. Owen and B. Nurcombe (1970) ‘The application of the Semantic Differential Test in a case of manic-depressive psychosis’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 4: 148–54.

  34. C. R. Hammen, T. Marks, A. Mayall and R. de Mayo (1985) ‘Depressive self-schemas, life stress and vulnerability to depression’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94: 308–19; J. Dent and J. D. Teasdale (1988) ‘Negative cognition and the persistence of depression’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97: 29–34; J. M. G. Williams, D. Healy, J. D. Teasdale, W. White and E. S. Paykel (1990) ‘Dysfunctional attitudes and vulnerability to persistent depression’, Psychological Medicine, 20: 375–81.

  35. R. A. Depue, P. F. Collins and M. Luciana (1996) ‘A model of neurobiology: environment interaction in developmental psychopathology’, in M. F. Lenzenweger and J. J. Haugaard (eds.), Frontiers of Developmental Psychopathology. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 44–76; R. A. Depue and W. G. Iacano (1989) ‘Neurobehavioural aspects of affective disorders’, Annual Review of Psychology, 40: 457–92.

  36. J. Gray (1994) ‘Three fundamental emotion systems’, in P. Ekman and R. J. Davidson (eds.), The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 243–7.

  37. B. Meyer, S. Johnson and C. Carver (1999) ‘Exploring behavioural activation and inhibition sensitivities among college students at-risk for mood disorders’, Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 21: 275–92.

  38. S. L. Johnson, D. Sandow, B. Meyer, R. Winters, I. Miller, D. Solomon and G. Keitner (2000) ‘Increases in manic symptoms after life events involving goal attainment’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 721–7.

  39. D. Healy (1987) ‘Rhythm and blues: neurochemical, neuropharmacological and neuropsychological implications of a hypothesis of circadian rhythm dysfunction in the affective disorders’, Psychopharmacology, 93: 271–85. See also P. C. Whybrow (1998) A Mood Apart: A Thinker’s Guide to Emotion and its Disorder. London: Picador.

  40. C. L. Raison, H. M. Klein and M. Steckler (1999) ‘The moon and madness reconsidered’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 53: 99–106.

  41. Goodwin and Jamison, Manic-Depressive Illness, op. cit.

  42. T. Wehr, D. A. Sack and N. E. Rosenthal (1987) ‘Sleep production as a final common pathway in the genesis of mania’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 144: 201–4; T. A. Wehr (1991) ‘Sleep-loss as a possible mediator of diverse causes of mania’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 159: 576–8. See also J. B. Wright (1993) ‘Mania following sleep deprivation’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 163: 679–80.

  43. J. I. Hudson, J. F. Lipinski, P. E. Keck, H. G. Aizley, S. E. Lukas, A. J. Rothschild, C. M. Waternaux and D. J. Kupfer (1992) ‘Polysomnographic characteristics of young manic patients: comparisons with unipolar depressed patients and normal control subjects’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 49: 378–83.

  44. B. Barbini, S. Bertelli, C. Colombo and E. Smeralsi (1996) ‘Sleep loss as a possible factor in augmenting manic episodes’, Psychiatry Research, 65: 121–5.

  45. E. Leibenluft, P. S. Albert, N. E. Rosenthal and T. A. Wehr (1996) ‘Relationship between sleep and mood in patients with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder’, Psychiatry Research, 63: 161–8.

  46. S. Malkoff-Schwartz, E. Frank, B. Anderson, J. T. Sherrill, L. Siegel
, D. Patterson and D. J. Kupfer (1998) ‘Stressful life events and social rhythm disruption in the onset of manic and depressive episodes of bipolar disorder’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 55: 702–7; S. Malkoff-Schwartz, E. Frank, B. P. Anderson, S. A. Hlastala, J. F. Luther, J. T. Sherrill and D. J. Kupfer (2000) ‘Social rhythm disruption and stressful life events in the onset of bipolar and unipolar episodes’, Psychological Medicine, 30: 1005–16.

  47. C. Colombo, F. Benedetti, B. Barbini, E. Campori and E. Smeraldi (1999) ‘Rate of switch from depression to mania after therapeutic sleep deprivation in bipolar depression’, Psychiatry Research, 86: 267–70.

  48. S. Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) ‘Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressed mood’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100: 569–82. See also the detailed discussion of Nolen-Hoeksema’s work in the previous chapter.