Madness Explained

by Richard P. Bental

  Chapter 18 The Trials of Life

  1. A. Camus (1955) The Myth of Sisyphus. London: Hamish Hamilton.

  2. P. Larkin (1988) ‘This be the verse’, Collected Poems. London: Faber & Faber.

  3. L. Johnstone (1999) ‘Do families cause “schizophrenia”?: Revisiting a taboo subject’, Changes, 17: 77–90.

  4. L. Kuipers, M. Birchwood and R. D. McCreadie (1992) ‘Psychosocial family intervention in schizophrenia: a review of empirical studies’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 160: 272–5.

  5. G. Bateson, D. D. Jackson, J. Haley and J. Weakland (1956) ‘Towards a theory of schizophrenia’, Behavioral Science, 1: 251–64.

  6. R. D. Laing and A. Esterson (1964) Sanity, Madness and the Family: Families of Schizophrenics. London: Tavistock.

  7. P. Sedgwick (1982) Psychopolitics. London: Pluto Press.

  8. J. Bowlby (1965) Child Care and the Growth of Love (2nd edn). Harmonds-worth: Penguin.

  9. S. J. Suomi (1997) ‘Long-term effects of different early rearing experiences on social, emotional, and physiological development in nonhuman primates’, in M. S. Keshavan and R. M. Murray (eds.), Neurodevelopment and Adult Psychopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 104–16.

  10. For a review of evidence on the social and cognitive consequences of insecure attachment, see E. Meins (1997) Security of Attachment and the Social Development of Cognition. Hove: Psychology Press.

  11. M. Main (1991) ‘Metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive monitoring, and singular (coherent) vs. multiple model of attachment: findings and future directions for research’, in C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde and P. Marris (eds.), Attachment across the Life Cycle. London: Routledge, pp. 127–59.

  12. P. Fonagy, S. Redfern and A. Charman (1997) ‘The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security (SAT)’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15: 51–63.

  13. Meins, Security of Attachment, op. cit.; E. Meins, C. Fernyhough, J. A. Russell and D. Clark-Carter (1998) ‘Security of attachment as a predictor of symbolic and mentalizing abilities: a longitudinal study’, Social Development, 7: 1–24.

  14. A. Myhrman, P. Rantakallio, M. Isohanni, P. Jones and U. Partanen (1996) ‘Unwantedness of pregnancy and schizophrenia in the child’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 169: 637–40.

  15. For readable accounts of attachment theory, see J. Holmes (1993) John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. London: Routledge; and Parkes, Stevenson-Hinde and Marris (eds.), Attachment across the Life Cycle, op. cit.

  16. M. Dozier, A. L. Stevenson, S. W. Lee and D. I. Velligan (1991) ‘Attachment organization and familial overinvolvement for adults with serious psychopathological disorders’, Development and Psychopathology, 3: 475–89.

  17. M. Dozier and S. W. Lee (1995) ‘Discrepancies between self and other-report of psychiatric symptomatology: effects of dismissing attachment strategies’, Development and Psychopathology, 7: 217–26.

  18. K. D. Mickelson, R. C. Kessler and P. R. Shaver (1997) ‘Adult attachment in a nationally representative sample’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73: 1092–106.

  19. M.L. Cooper, P. R. Shaver and N. L. Collins (1998) ‘Attachment style, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 1380–97. For a study of disturbed adolescents that found a relationship between paranoid personality characteristics and the dismissing-avoidant attachment style, see also D. S. Rosenstein and H. A. Horowitz (1996) ‘Adolescent attachment and psychopathology’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64: 244–53.

  20. P. Rankin, R. P. Bentall, J. Hill and P. Kinderman (submitted) ‘Parental relationships and paranoid delusions: comparisons of currently ill, remitted and normal people’.

  21. J. Schiffman, J. LaBrie, J. Carter, C. Tyrone, F. Schulsinger, J. Parnas and S. Mednick (2002) ‘Perception of parent–child relationships in high-risk families, and adult schizophrenia outcome of offspring’, Journal of Psychiatric Research, 36: 41–7.

  22. K.-E. Wahlberg, L. C. Wynne, H. Oja, P. Keskitalo, L. Pykalainen, I. Lahti, J. Moring, N. Naarala, A. Sorri, M. Seitamaa, K. Laksy, J. Kolassa and P. Tienari (1997) ‘Gene–environment interaction in vulnerability to schizophrenia: findings from the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 154: 355–62.

  23. E. Kuipers and D. Raune (2000) ‘The early development of expressed emotion and burden in the families of first-onset psychosis’, in M. Birchwood, D. Fowler and C. Jackson (eds.), Early Intervention in Psychosis. London: Wiley, pp. 128–40.

  24. N. J. Goldstein (1987) ‘The UCLA high-risk project’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13: 505–14.

  25. M. J. Goldstein (1998) ‘Adolescent behavioral and intrafamilial precursors of schizophrenia spectrum disorders’, International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13 (Supplement 1): 101.

  26. M. E. Seligman, C. Peterson, N. J. Kaslow, R. L. Tanenbaum, L. B. Alloy and L. Y. Abramson (1984) ‘Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93: 235–8.

  27. K. Durkin (1995) Developmental Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell; F. D. Fincham and K. M. Cain (1986) ‘Learned helplessness in humans: a developmental analysis’, Developmental Review, 6: 301–33; E. Turk and B. Bry (1992) ‘Adolescents’ and parents’ explanatory styles and parents’ causal explanations about their adolescents’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16: 349–57.

  28. J. Garber and C. Flynn (2001) ‘Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents: negative interpersonal context leads to personal vulnerability’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25: 353–76.

  29. C. Hammen (1991) Depression Runs in Families: The Social Context of Risk and Resilience in Children of Depressed Mothers. London: Springer-Verlag.

  30. L. B. Alloy, L. Y. Abramson, W. G. Whitehouse, M. E. Hogan, N. A. Tashman, D. L. Steinberg, D. T. Rose and P. Donovan (1999) ‘Depressogenic cognitive styles: predictive validity, information processing and personality characteristics, and developmental origins’, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37: 503–31.

  31. L. B. Alloy, L. Y. Abramson, N. A. Tashman, D. S. Berrebbi, M. E. Hogan, W. G. Whitehouse, A. G. Crossfield and A. Morocco (2001) ‘Developmental origins of cognitive vulnerability to depression: parenting, cognitive and inferential feedback styles of the parents of individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression’, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25: 397–423. For an earlier relevant study from the same research group, see: D. T. Rose, L. Y. Abramson, C. J. Hodulik, L. Halberstadt and G. Leff (1994) ‘Heterogeneity of cognitive style among depressed inpatients’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103: 419–29.

  32. D. Diamond and J. Doane (1994) ‘Disturbed attachment and negative affective style: an intergenerational spiral’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 164: 770–81; G. Paley, D. A. Shapiro and A. Worrall-Davies (2000) ‘Familial origins of expressed emotion in relatives of people with schizophrenia’, Journal of Mental Health, 9: 655–63.

  33. G. Harrison, D. Owens, A. Holton, D. Neilson and D. Boot (1988) ‘A prospective study of severe mental disorder in Afro-Caribbean patients’, Psychological Medicine, 18: 643–57.

  34. D. Bhugra, M. Hilwig, B. Hossein, H. Marceau, J. Neehall, J. P. Leff, R. Mallett and G. Der (1996) ‘First contact incidence rates of schizophrenia in Trinidad and one-year follow-up’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 169: 587–92; F. W. Hickling (1995) ‘The incidence of first-contact schizophrenia in Jamaica’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 167: 193–6.

  35. G. Hutchinson, N. Takei, T. A. Fahy, D. Bhugra, C. Gilvarry, O. Moran, R. Mallett, P. Sham, J. Leff and R. M. Murray (1996) ‘Morbid risk of schizophrenia in first-degree relatives of white and Afro-Caribbean patients with psychosis’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 171: 776–80; P. A. Sugarman and D. Crawford (1994) ‘Schizophrenia in the Afro-Caribbean community’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 164: 474–80.

  36. J.-P. Selten, N. Veen, W. Feller,
J. D. Blom, D. Schols, W. Camoenie, J. Oolders, M. van der Velden, H. W. Hoek, V. M. Rivero, Y. van der Graaf and R. Kahn (2001) ‘Incidence of psychotic disorders in immigrant groups to The Netherlands’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 178: 367–72.

  37. K. Zolkowska, G. E. Cantor and T. F. McNeil (2001) ‘Increased rates of psychosis amongst immigrants to Sweden: is migration a risk factor for psychosis?’ Psychological Medicine, 31: 669–78.

  38. C. Haasen, M. Lambert, R. Mass and M. Kraesz (1998) ‘Impact of ethnicity on the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among migrants in Germany’, Ethnicity and Health, 3: 159–65.

  39. F. W. Hickling (1991) ‘Double jeopardy: psychopathology of Black mentally ill returned to Jamaica’, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 37: 80–9.

  40. J. Boydell, J. van Os, J. McKenzie, J. Allardyce, R. Goel, R. G. McCreadie and R. M. Murray (2001) ‘Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: ecological study into interactions with environment’, British Medical Journal, 323: 1–4.

  41. D. Bhugra, J. Leff, R. Mallett, G. Der, B. Corridan and S. Rudge (1997) ‘Incidence and outcome of schizophrenia in Whites, African-Caribbeans and Asians in London’, Psychological Medicine, 27: 791–8.

  42. M. MacLachlan (1997) Culture and Health. London: Wiley.

  43. J. Berry (1988) ‘Acculturation and mental health’, in Pierre Dasen, John Berry and Norman Sartorius (eds.), Health and Cross-Cultural Psychology: Towards Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  44. R. E. L. Faris and H. W. Dunham (1939) Mental Disorders in Urban Areas. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

  45. D. L. Gerald and L. G. Houston (1953) ‘Family setting and the ecology of schizophrenia’, Psychiatric Quarterly, 27: 90–101.

  46. A. S. McNaught, S. E. Jeffries, C. A. Harvey and A. S. Quale (1997) ‘The Hampstead Schizophrenia Survey 1991: incidence and migrationininner London’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 170: 307–11.

  47. C. B. Pedersen and P. B. Mortensen (2001) ‘Evidence of a dose–response relationship between urbanicity during upbringing and schizophrenia risk’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 58: 1039–46.

  48. V. K. Varma, N. N. Wig, H. R. Phookun, A. K. Misra, C. B. Khare, B. M. Tripathi, P. B. Behere, E. S. Yoo and E. S. Susser (1997) ‘First-onset schizophrenia in the community: relationship of urbanization with onset, early manifestations and typology’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 96: 431–8.

  49. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (4th edition). Washington, DC: APA.

  50. L. A. Goodman, S. D. Rosenberg, K. T. Mueser and R. E. Drake (1997) ‘Physical and sexual assault history in women with serious mental illness: prevalence, correlates, treatment, and future research directions’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23: 685–96.

  51. K. T. Mueser, L. A. Goodman, S. L. Trumbetta, S. D. Rosenberg, F. C. Osher, R. Vidaver, P. Auciello and D. W. Foy (1998) ‘Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66: 493–9.

  52. M. Hyun, S. D. Friedman and D. L. Dunner (2000) ‘Relationship of childhood physical and sexual abuse to adult bipolar disorder’, Bipolar Disorder, 2: 121–35; R. D. Levitan, S. V. Parikh, A. D. Lesage, K. M. Hegadoren, M. Adams, S. H. Kennedy and P. N. Goering (1998) ‘Major depression in individuals with a history of childhood physical or sexual abuse: relationship to neurovegetative features, mania, and gender’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 155: 1746–52.

  53. B. M. Cohen and M. Z. Cooper (1954) ‘A follow-up study of World War II prisoners of war’, Veterans Administration Medical Monograph. Washington: US Government Printing Office; G. W. Beebe (1975) ‘Follow-up studies of World War II and Korean War prisoners’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 101: 400–2.

  54. R. E. Eberly and B. E. Engdahl (1991) ‘Prevalence of somatic and psychiatric disorders among former prisoners of war’, Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42: 807–13.

  55.R.W. Butler, K.T. Mueser, J. Sprock and D. L. Braff (1996) ‘Positive symptoms of psychosis in posttraumatic stress disorder’, Biological Psychiatry, 39: 839–44; K. T. Mueser and R. W. Butler (1987) ‘Auditory hallucinations in combat-related chronic posttraumatic stress disorder’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 144: 299–302.

  56. L. Eitinger (1967) ‘Schizophrenia among concentration camp survivors’, International Journal of Psychiatry, 5: 403–8.

  57. J. D. Kinzie and J. J. Boehnlein (1989) ‘Post-traumatic psychosis among Cambodian refugees’, Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2: 185–98.

  58. Y. Neria, E. J. Bromet, S. Sievers, J. Lavelle and L. J. Fochtmann (2002) ‘Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in psychosis: findings from a first-admission cohort’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70: 246–51.

  59. J. E. D. Esquirol (1843/1965) Mental Maladies: A Treatise on Insanity. New York: Hafner.

  60. R. E. Kendell, J. C. Chalmers and C. Platz (1986) ‘Epidemiology of puerperal psychoses’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 150: 662–73.

  61. I. F. Brockington, K. F. Cernik, E. M. Schofield, A. R. Downing, A. F. Francis and C. Keelan (1981) ‘Puerperal psychosis: phenomena and diagnosis’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 38: 829–33.

  62. I. Brockington (1996) Motherhood and Mental Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  63. J. W. Ellason and C. A. Ross (1997) ‘Childhood trauma and psychiatric symptoms’, Psychological Reports, 80: 447–50; C. A. Ross, G. Anderson and P. Clark (1994) ‘Childhood abuse and the positive symptoms of schizophrenia’, Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42: 489–91.

  64. J. Read and N. Argyle (1999) ‘Hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder among adult psychiatric inpatients with a history of child abuse’, Psychiatric Services, 51: 534–5.

  65. P. Hammersley, A. Dias, G. Todd, K. Bowen-Jones, B. Reilly and R. P. Bentall (in press) ‘Childhood trauma and hallucinations in bipolar affective disorder: a preliminary investigation’, British Journal of Psychiatry.

  66. The specific association between trauma and hallucinations has also been reported in studies of women who have been abused. Bernadine Ensink (Confusing Realities: A Study of Child Sexual Abuse and Psychiatric Symptoms. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1992), a psychologist working at the University of Amsterdam, interviewed 100 women who had sought psychological help for problems relating to sexual abuse. Thirty-four per cent reported hallucinatory flashbacks of their experiences, 42 per cent reported visual hallucinations, and 43 per cent reported hearing voices. In general, the women who experienced auditory hallucinations had been victims of the most severe forms of sexual abuse.

  67. C. Fernyhough and J. Russell (1997) ‘Distinguishing one’s own voice from those of others: a function for private speech?’ International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20: 651–65.

  68. A. Honig, M. A. J. Romme, B. J. Ensink, S. Escher, M. H. A. Pennings and M. W. DeVries (1998) ‘Auditory hallucinations: a comparison between patients and nonpatients’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186: 646–51.

  69. J. Read, B. D. Perry, A. Moskowitz and J. Connolly (2001) ‘The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model’, Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 64: 319–45.

  70. R. W. Heinrichs (2001) In Search of Madness: Schizophrenia and Neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  71. For example, see the study by Butler et al. cited earlier in this chapter.

  72. E. Bleuler (1911/1950) Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias (trans. E. Zinkin). New York: International Universities Press.

  73. M. F. Green (1998) Schizophrenia from a Neurocognitive Perspective: Probing the Impenetrable Darkness. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

  74. G. S. Hall (1916) Adolescence. New York: Appleton.

  75. R. E. Muus (1996) Theories of Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill; J. C. Coleman and L. B. Hendry (1999) The Nature of Adolescence (3rd edn). London: Routledge.

/>   76. E. H. Erikson (1950) Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.

  77. C. Harrop and P. Trower (2001) ‘Why does schizophrenia develop at late adolescence?’, Clinical Psychology Review, 21: 241–66.

  78. P. D. McGorry, C. McFarlane, G. C. Patton, R. Bell, M. E. Hibbert, H. J. Jackson and G. Bowes (1995) ‘The prevalence of prodromal features of schizophrenia in adolescence: a preliminary survey’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 92: 241–9.

  79. B. A. Cornblatt, M. F. Lenzenweger, R. H. Dworkin and L. Erlenmeyer-Kimling (1992) ‘Childhood attentional dysfunctions predict social deficits in unaffected adults at risk for schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 161 (Supplement 18): 59–64.

  80. A. P. Morrison (2001) ‘The interpretation of intrusions in psychosis: an integrative cognitive approach to hallucinations and delusions’, Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 29: 257–76.