The Martial Arts of Ancient Greece

by Kostas Dervenis

  The athletes guarded their heads in combat position by placing their hands relatively high up (keep in mind that “heel of the hand” and “base of the fist” blows were common, unlike boxing today). However, in order to be ready to hit or hold their opponents at will, pankration athletes used a “looser” position than boxers, who had to guard their heads more carefully and continuously.

  ATHLETICISM IN THE HELLENISTIC ERA

  Although these rules and the techniques that arose as a result of these rules characterized pankration throughout its history, other aspects changed over time, particularly after the onset of the Hellenistic era (323–146 BCE). Not only pankration, but all athleticism in the Hellenistic era followed the general course of Hellenism itself. Athletic idealism, born in the ancient cities of classical Greece, reached its summit and, with the conquests of Alexander the Great and the founding of Hellenistic kingdoms, went outside Greece itself. Wherever Hellenism made inroads, traditional athletic settings such as gymnasiums, wrestling rings, and stadiums were created, not only in the new cities built by Alexander, but even in small, remote villages.

  This expansion of athleticism and the facilities that supported it was due to several factors: changing political, economic, and social conditions; the appeal that the Panhellenic festivities, especially the Olympics, had for the entire ancient world; and the ambition of the kings of Hellenistic states and other civil authorities to enhance their reputation and legacy. New games—in addition to those that took place between the Olympiads—were started, which attracted worthy athletes and aroused ardent interest among the people. At the same time, the games became more of a show, increasingly disconnected from the religious festivals that were their origin. Their main characteristic trait was their opulence, which was the opposite of the simplicity of older times, and the attention given to providing entertainment to the spectators.

  Professional Athleticism

  The great Panhellenic games were originally stephanêtes, meaning that the prizes were mere flower wreaths, but starting in the fifth century BCE, various cities honored the winners by offering them gifts of money or other rewards that could be exchanged for money. The phenomenon of athletes competing for money increased during the Hellenistic era and there was no way to stop it. Professional athletes were not an isolated phenomenon, but a result of the changes in the political, economic, and social life of the Greeks; their existence was also closely connected to the evolution of athleticism, that is, with the improvement of the terms of competitions, the specialization of the athletes themselves, and more “professional” performances geared toward amusing the crowd.

  With the emergence of professional athletes, professional trainers also appeared, promising great performance and distinction to gifted young men with good physical qualities, and to their parents, provided they followed their hard training program. Motivated by the promise of considerable financial rewards and great privileges, young athletes turned professional, neglecting their general education. This was contrary to the general purpose of athletics (“A Sound Mind in a Sound Body”) and is reminiscent of what has happened in the modern age.

  PANKRATION IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE

  The period following the enslavement of Greece by the Romans in 146 BCE was critical for athleticism and the athletic ideal. Economic, moral, and social decadence was prevalent. Most local games were terminated and the Panhellenic games withered. However, two factors helped to keep the athletic ideal alive during these difficult years for Hellenism. The first was the glamour of the Panhellenic games. The Romans—in spite of their contempt for athleticism and the athletic endeavors of the Greeks—did not abolish them, perhaps after considering the political benefits they could derive from them. The second factor was the gymnasiums—centers of athletic, intellectual, spiritual, and social activities which were so important to life in the Greek cities. With whatever autonomy was allowed them by the Romans, the Greeks continued to gather at their gymnasiums.

  Over time, professional unions developed around the gymnasiums, contributing to the expansion of professional athleticism. In effect, there was a blossoming of athleticism overall, but one that was perhaps superficial, differing substantially from the athletic practices that had been closely connected to religion and the heroes of the past. In the Roman era, athletic events became glamorous shows, attracting fans from East and West, from all ends of the vast Roman Empire. Stadiums became huge in order to accommodate the great number of spectators. The tastes of this public were influenced by the preferences of the Romans, who loved not only tough contests such as boxing, wrestling, and pankration, but also bloody ones, like gladiator duels and fights against wild animals. Money was the only motive for the training of such athletes.

  As mentioned earlier, pankration’s origins as training for actual combat left their mark on its practice during its first one hundred to two hundred years in ancient Olympia. The aim of the athletes was to beat their opponent quickly, if possible avoiding any fighting while lying on the ground. However, as athleticism became more professional, the strategy and tactics of pankration also transformed, not only in Olympia but in other Panhellenic games as well. During the Roman era, when professional athletes could earn both wealth and fame, the game of pankration became characterized by the extended duration of the contest on the ground. Athletes did not care to finish the game quickly, since their purpose was not to prepare for war, but to obtain financial gains and entertain the spectators. The practice of pankration also became increasingly specialized.

  Undoubtedly pankration was the most complete fighting contest between two contestants from its first appearance in Olympia in 648 BCE until its official disappearance (in 364 CE or 393 CE). Today it is once again becoming the same for two unarmed combatants, given the resurgence of the sport in its modern form of mixed martial arts. This book will not expand into a detailed analysis of the history of pankration—there are academic sources and historical studies analyzing this subject extensively. Instead, we shall attempt to explain pankration as a contest and its techniques as developed throughout history, based on the existing archaeological evidence.

  3

  ANALYSIS OF THE TECHNIQUES OF PANKRATION

  In this chapter we shall present the techniques of the combat sport of pankration, while referencing the wider context of the martial arts (pammachon) of the ancient Mediterranean world from which the combat sport originated. Each technique will be represented by an ancient Greek, Egyptian, or Roman depiction of the move, either on pottery or on a frieze, mosaic, or sculpture. The reasons that we freely use depictions from various peoples and empires in the Mediterranean throughout different periods in time are twofold:

  Given the proven commercial and cultural relations these realms had, beginning with the Bronze Age, we find it highly unlikely that a concomitant diffusion of martial arts and/or combat sports skills did not take place (and we are indifferent in this book as to its direction).

  We believe that these skills and techniques are universal in nature in any case, and have their roots in the Neolithic period of human development. The representations of ancient technique found in these pages will be followed by a step-by-step breakdown of an identical modern-day move accompanied by sequential photographs of combatants performing it. This presentation also includes a detailed look at the kinesiology, the knowledge of anatomy, and principles of mechanics implied in these movements. It makes it clear that this tradition has survived remarkably intact since the heyday of ancient Greek civilization, and this is a logical conclusion. There is nothing new in combat—people have been trying to kill each other with traditional weapons for millennia—and the combat sports that provide a training ground for same, have always reflected this reality.

  In the study that follows, we refer to combat sports as pankration, and to the martial arts as pammachon, whether the depictions are Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek, or Roman; it is our intention to refer to these arts and sports within the general context of the ancien
t world, and not strictly the Hellenic world. We consider depictions in which warriors defend themselves against mythological creatures (such as centaurs) as pammachon, since it is obvious that the artist is not rendering an athletic competition but a scene of actual combat. It is worth noting that in such scenes the fighters are never portrayed grappling on the ground. Some depictions that we have included could be described as either pammachon or pankration, and in these cases we do not differentiate the two, while others are clearly pankration (submission fighting) or boxing, and are labeled as such.

  COMBAT RANGES

  During a pankration contest, all kinds of blows and holds were allowed (with very few exceptions), making it the only fighting contest that included all four of the combat ranges typical of combat sports. These four ranges are distinguished by the distance between the fighters and the techniques that are applied in each case. The ranges are:

  The Kicking Range: from around four and a half to five feet; in which kicks are exchanged.

  The Boxing Range: approximately three feet; where hand blows are dealt.

  The Entrapment Range: about twenty inches; in which limb and body holds are executed. Knee, elbow, and head blows are also included.

  The Wrestling Range: less than twenty inches; where—after capturing or engulfing the opponent—holds, throws, lifts, sweeps, and submission/immobilization of the opponent are executed.

  Special Techniques in Each Combat Range

  Pankration athletes were trained in each combat range. After having fully understood one range, they proceeded to the next range, ultimately advancing to the unification of the ranges. This does not mean that they had learned everything involved with each range’s technique. On the contrary, they restricted their techniques to a minimum number during training in order to better obtain correct technique and balance in the next range—that is, in the beginning they did not allow their students to specialize in any one range. More specifically, in the Kicking Range they used only one or two kicks and never kicked above the waist. In the Boxing Range, hooking punches were not preferred except when on the ground, or after capturing the opponent in a lock or hold. In the Wrestling Range, many of the throws and takedowns used in the game of wrestling were undesirable and harmful in pankration.

  The inclusion of all four combat ranges makes it clear that pankration was a complicated game. At first glance the designation of techniques to be applied may seem clear, as determined by whether the athletes were standing or rolling on the ground and according to the individual combat range. However, it is far more complicated in an actual fight, because the transfer from one range to another is usually fast and indistinguishable, and because, for example, an athlete fallen on the ground could kick his opponent, depending on the distance between them. In any given contest, the sequence of technical applications would naturally develop in the course of the game, according to the capabilities of the athletes.

  Standing Combat

  The first two ranges, the Kicking Range and the Boxing Range, pertain to standing combat, which, as noted earlier, prevailed in the first couple of hundred years of Olympic pankration competitions.

  THE KICKING RANGE

  Principles and Aims

  In both pankration and pammachon there is one kind of kick: the front kick to the body or the legs of the opponent, never to the head. Ancient Greeks, along with all Mediterranean peoples, were realists: they knew that an opponent could easily neutralize a high kick and gain an advantage over anyone foolish enough to try it. This was equally true on the battlefield as in athletic competition (you can’t kick high while wearing armor). Therefore, high kicks were excluded from both their martial arts and their combat sports. This was not because of lack of knowledge, but by choice.

  So, in the Kicking Range, the front kick prevails, but with specific targets and goals in mind, as we shall proceed to explain. A basic argument in favor of the front kick is the minimal risk it entails for the athlete executing it. It is easy for a man to perform such a kick while maintaining his balance and preserving a stable erect position for confronting his opponent.

  Technical Intricacies

  Most kicks have strategic importance. Their object is not just to hurt the opponent, but to also act as a possible diversion. This means that athletes kick low, in order to force their opponent to lower his defenses, so that they can launch an attack by striking with their hands or proceeding with a body hold.

  THE FRONT KICK

  Figure 3.1. Bronze statue of Roman pankration athlete from Autun. During the Roman Empire, athletes belonged to professional clubs whose purpose was to promote their commercial interests. This is the period of specialization of the athlete and the technique of the game. Louvre Museum, Paris. (Drawing based on a photograph from the museum.)

  ANALYSIS

  In figure 3.1 a Roman pankration athlete launches a front kick attack. Judging by the position of his body we can assume that he is ready to proceed with hand blows or is executing at least one block, or both. The details as created by the sculptor show his knowledge of kinesiology and effectiveness. The knee at the time of impact is bent at a ten-degree angle. This provides maximum force for the kick. The toes are lifted up, allowing the soft part of the sole to strike. The base (right leg) of the athlete is bent, in order to provide maximum balance during the kicking process. The athlete’s body is erect, facing his opponent. This enables him to maintain his balance after the kick, both for defensive purposes and in order to proceed with a follow-up attack. The distance between his legs is relatively short. This, combined with the erect position of his body, leads us to suggest that his kick may have had a defensive character, rather than an aggressive one. From the angle of the drawing, he appears to be striking with the ball of the foot; this is not actually the case, but the ball of the foot does appear in many other depictions.

  CONTEMPORARY APPLICATION

  Front Defensive Kick (Pankration)

  The athletes face each other (A) and as one approaches from the right, the one on the left immediately lifts his front (left) leg, arming it (B).

  At the time of impact, the leg of the defender is bent at the knee, ideally at a ten-degree angle, in order to obtain maximum power (C).

  DIRECT STOMP-KICK

  Figure 3.2. The statue in figure 3.1, from another angle. (Drawing based on a photograph from the museum.)

  ANALYSIS

  Observing the same presentation from another angle, the conclusions are different. The athlete from this angle seems to be performing a direct kick at the knee of his opponent, a “stomp-kick,” intending to break it.1 It is possible that he has used his left arm to defend himself against a blow from his opponent’s arm and then has gone on to further his defense with this kick. The kick blow is dealt with the heel, while he is ready to proceed with a direct right punch blow.

  CONTEMPORARY APPLICATION

  Again the kick is defensive, as at the moment one contestant closes the distance, stepping forward to launch a punch blow, the defender counters to his opponent’s knee with the sole of his foot, as he blocks the incoming punch (A–B).

  He then steps firmly on the floor and counterattacks with a power punch (C).

  FRONT TRAMPLE-KICK

  Figure 3.3. Attic amphora, sixth century BCE, Vienna Museum. (Drawing based on a photograph from the museum.)

  ANALYSIS

  This is a trample-kick, used today in submission fighting as well (pankration). It provides additional confirmation that in pankration, kicking was led by strategy. The front leg is lifted up and cocks.2 Then it is fired at the opponent’s knee. Since this restricts the mobility of the opponent, the first athlete closes the distance safely; he is able to continue his attack with other means because his opponent is occupied with probable damage to his knee.

  CONTEMPORARY APPLICATION

  While ancient pankration athletes would have proceeded with a direct power punch before coming to body contact with their opponents, in contemporary contests of submission
combat, the attack usually ends by going to a clinch after a trample-kick on the opponent’s knee. For example, athletes of Brazilian jiu-jitsu usually continue by making body contact with their opponent in order to drive him to the ground.

  The attacker cocks his front leg (B).

  Next, he tramples on his opponent’s knee, keeping a safe distance (C).

  He ends up by infiltrating his opponent’s defenses and clasping the body of his opponent (D).

  DEFENSIVE KICK

  Figure 3.4. Mosaic showing ancient wrestling ring. Roman era, Tusculum, Italy. (Drawing from Monumenti ineditti pubblicati dall’Instituto di corrispondenze archeologica, 1857–63.)

  ANALYSIS

  This mosaic provides a lot of information regarding Roman era pankration, as it contains a plethora of presentations from all battle zones.

  The athlete on the left in figure 3.5 seems to execute a defensive kick high on his opponent’s leg or at the hip joint itself. It is a kick made with the lower part of the sole or more likely the actual heel, which serves to undermine his opponent’s composure, causing him to leave his head uncovered. At the same time it prevents a possible attack.

  Figure 3.5. Magnified part of the mosaic.

  CONTEMPORARY APPLICATION

  The main aim of defensive kicks is not to truly injure the opponent, but rather to prevent any offensive initiative on his part. The basic feature of this kind of kick is correct timing. Only then can it be used to effectively prevent an attack from an opponent and enable an athlete to proceed with his own counterattack.

  The athletes face each other (A).

  The athlete on the right attacks by trying to infiltrate his opponent’s guard and attempting a rear punch blow. The athlete on the left prepares to defend (B).

  Before he is able to complete his attack, the attacker is stopped by a defensive kick at his pelvis. At the same time, the defender has blocked the offensive arm of the attacker (C).