History of the Jews

by Paul Johnson

  123. For Akiva see L. Finkelstein, Akiva, Scholar, Saint and Martyr (New York, 1962 edn). On the question of his joining the revolt see Chaim Raphael, A Coat of Many Colours (London, 1979), 190-8.

  124. Ta’an 4:68d; Encyclopaedia Judaica, vi 603.

  125. Yigael Yadin, Finds from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters (New York 1963).

  126. Cassius Dio, Roman History, book 69.

  127. Quoted in Comay, op. cit.; Kenyon, Digging Up Jerusalem.

  128. S. G. Wilson, Luke and the Law (Cambridge 1983), 103-6.

  129. S. G. F. Brandon, The Fall of Jerusalem and the Christian Church (2nd edn, London 1957).

  130. Barnabas Lindars, Jesus Son of Man: A Fresh Examination of the Son of Man Sayings in the Gospels in the Light of Recent Research (London 1983).

  131. See, for instance, Geza Vermes, Jesus and the World of Judaism (London 1984).

  132. Franz Mussner, Tractate on the Jews: The Significance of Judaism for Christian Faith (trans., Philadelphia 1984), 180ff.

  133. 4 Q Fl 1:8, quoted in Mussner, ibid., 185; John 8:37-44.

  134. Matthew 27:24ff.

  135. E. Hennecke and W. Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha (Philadelphia 1965), 1:179ff.

  136. Ecclesiasticus 36:7.

  137. Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians (Yale 1984).

  138. Philo’s Complete Works, ed. and trans. F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, are in 12 vols (Cambridge 1953-63); E. R. Goodenough, Introduction to Philo Judaeus (London 2nd edn 1962).

  139. Aboth Derabbi Nathan B, 31.

  140. G. Bader, Jewish Spiritual Heroes (New York 1940), i 411-36.

  141. Rachel Wischnitzen, The Messianic Theme in the Paintings of the Dura Synagogue (Chicago 1948).

  142. C. Hollis and Ronald Brownrigg, Holy Places (London 1969); Moshe Perelman and Yaacov Yanni, Historical Sites in Israel (London 1964).

  143. For the full list of subjects covered, see Encyclopaedia Judaica, XV 751.

  144. Ibid., 1283-5.

  145. Leviticus Rabbah 34,3; Philo, Leg. All. 3:69; De Pot. 19-20; Taanit 11a; Yer. Nedarim 9,1 (41b); quoted in Samuel Belkin, In His Image: The Jewish Philosophy of Man as Expressed in the Rabbinical Tradition (London 1961).

  146. Sanhedrin 4, 5.

  147. Hilkot Rozeah 1, 4.

  148. Sifra on Leviticus 22:6; Mekilta on Exodus 22:6; quoted in Belkin, op. cit.

  149. Deuteronomy 17:15; Philo, Spec. Leg., 4:157, quoted in Belkin, op. cit.

  150. Abot 4, 8.

  151. Berakot 55a.

  152. Yer. Shabbat 3d.

  153. Horayot 3, 7-8, quoted in Belkin, op. cit.

  154. Baba Kamma 8, 1.

  155. Baba Bathra 2b; Baba Metziah 108b; Baba Bathra 6b, 21a. Quoted in Belkin, op. cit.

  156. Belkin, op. cit., 134ff.

  157. Philo, De Sacr. Ab., 121-5.

  158. Proverbs 3:17.

  159. Psalms 29:11; Tractatus Uksin 3:12; quoted in Meyer Waxman, Judaism, Religion and Ethics (New York 1958).

  160. Isaiah 52:7.

  161. Quoted in Waxman, op. cit., 187-90.

  162. Contra Apionem, ii 177-8.

  163. Kiddushin 71a.

  164. Ben Sasson, op. cit., 373-82.

  165. F. Holmes Duddon, The Life and Times of St Ambrose, 2 vols (Oxford 1935).

  166. Charles C. Torrey, The Jewish Foundation of Islam (Yale, new edn 1967).

  PART THREE: CATHEDOCRACY

  1. A. Adler (ed.), The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela (London 1840-1, reprinted New York 1927).

  2. Andrew Sharf, Byzantine Jewry from Justinian to the Fourth Crusade (London 1971), 21.

  3. Ibid., 25-6.

  4. Quoted in ibid., 136.

  5. Cecil Roth, Personalities and Events in Jewish History (Philadelphia 1961), ‘The Jew as European’.

  6. Ibid., 40-4.

  7. Irving A. Agus, Urban Civilization in Pre-Crusade Europe, 2 vols (Leiden 1965), i 9.

  8. Fritz M. Heichelheim, An Ancient Economic History, 2 vols (trans., Leiden 1965), i 104-56.

  9. For example, I Samuel 22:2; II Kings 4:1; Isaiah 50:1; Ezekiel 22:12; Nehemiah 5:7; 12:13.

  10. BM 5:11, 75b; Yad, Malveh 4:2; BM 5:2; BM 64b; BM 5:10, 75b; Tosef, BM 6:17.

  11. BM 65a, 68b, 104b, 61b; Tosef, BM 5:22, 5:23; Sanh.:3; BM 61b, 71a etc. Encyclopaedia Judaica, xii 244-56; xvi 27-33.

  12. Philo, De Virtutibus, 82.

  13. Mekhilta of R. Ishmael on Exodus 22:25; Mak, 24a; BM 70b.

  14. Tos. to BM 70b.

  15. Responsa Maharik 118, 132.

  16. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam (London 1985) 45-55.

  17. S. Katz, The Jews in the Visigothic Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul (Cambridge 1937).

  18. Proverbs 8:22ff.; Ecclesiastes 1:1-5, 26; 15:1; 24:1ff.; 34:8.

  19. Avot 3:14; Lev. R. 19:1; ARN 31:91; II Moses 2; 14, 51.

  20. Proverbs 8:14.

  21. Sifre, Deuteronomy 41; Ex. Rabbah 30, 10; Tanhumah, Mishpatim 2; Philo, Spec. Leg., iii 1-7. Quoted in Samuel Belkin, In His Image: The Jewish Philosophy of Man as Expressed in the Rabbinical Tradition (London 1961). E. R. Goodenough: The Politics of Philo Judaeus (Yale 1938), 16ff.

  22. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society (California 1971), ii The Community, 205-6.

  23. Ibid., 198-9.

  24. Quoted in Mark R. Cohen, Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt (Princeton 1980), 7-9.

  25. Ibid., 94ff.

  26. Goitein, op. cit., iii The Family, 3-5.

  27. Ibid., i 1-28, and S. D. Goitein, Studies in Islamic History (Leiden 1966), 279-95; Encyclopaedia Judaica, vii 404-7; xiv 948-9.

  28. S. D. Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders (Princeton 1973), 227-9.

  29. Genesis 37:35; letter quoted in Goitein, Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, 207.

  30. ‘Moses Maimonides’, in Alexander Marx, Studies in Jewish History and Booklore (New York 1969), 42.

  31. Quoted Marx, ibid. 38.

  32. Ibid., 31.

  33. Ibid., 32-3.

  34. Goodenough, op. cit., 8-19.

  35. Marx, op. cit., 29-30.

  36. ‘Maimonides and the Scholars of Southern France’, in ibid., 48-62.

  37. Arthur Hyman, ‘Maimonides’ Thirteen Principles’, in Alexander Altmann (ed.), Jewish Medieval and Renaissance Studies (Harvard 1967), 119-44.

  38. Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, ‘Maimonides’ Conception of State and Society’, in Studia Semitica, 2 vols (Cambridge 1971), i 275ff.

  39. Guide of the Perplexed, 3:27; Hyman, op. cit.

  40. Cecil Roth, ‘The People and the Book’, in Personalities and Events in Jewish History, 172ff.

  41. Isadore Twersky, ‘Some Non-Halakhic Aspects of the Mishneh Torah’, in Altmann, op. cit., 95-118.

  42. Marx, op. cit., 38-41.

  43. Guide of the Perplexed, 2:45; Alexander Altmann, ‘Maimonides and Thomas Aquinas: Natural of Divine Prophecy’, in Essays in Jewish Intellectual History (Brandeis 1981).

  44. Ecclesiastes 7:24.

  45. ‘Free Will and Predestination in Saadia, Bahya and Maimonides’, in Altmann, op. cit.

  46. Quoted in H. H. Ben Sasson (ed.), A History of the Jewish People (trans., Harvard 1976), 545.

  47. Shir Hasherim Rabbah 2:14; quoted in ibid.

  48. Quoted in Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages (Oxford 1952), 78.

  49. Norman Golb, ‘Aspects of the Historical Background of Jewish Life in Medieval Egypt’, in Altmann, op. cit., 1-18.

  50. Samuel Rosenblatt (ed.), The Highways to Perfection of Abraham Maimonides (New York 1927), i Introduction.

  51. S. D. Goitein, ‘Abraham Maimonides and his Pietist Circle’, in Altmann, op. cit., 145-64.

  52. Some scholars think Philo himself was a mystic and dealer in symbols. Cf. E. R. Goodenough, Jewish Symbols in the Graeco-Roman Period, 12 vols (New York, 1953-68).

  53. For kabbalah, see G. Scholem’s article in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, X 489-653, and his Major Trends
in Jewish Mysticism (New York 1965).

  54. ‘Moses Narboni’s “Epistle on Shi’ur Qoma”’, in Altmann, op. cit., 228-31; G. Scholem, Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism and Talmudic Tradition (2nd edn, New York 1965), 36-42.

  55. R. Kaiser, Life and Times of Jehudah Halevi (New York 1949).

  56. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, ii The Community, 241-5; 255-64.

  57. Ibid., iii The Family, 17-35.

  58. Ibid., 46.

  59. Meyer Waxman, Judaism: Religion and Ethics (New York 1958), ‘Marriage’, 113ff.

  60. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, iii 209-11.

  61. Waxman, op. cit., 118 footnote.

  62. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, iii 50.

  63. Malachi 2:16.

  64. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, iii 260ff.

  65. Yevamot, 14, 1.

  66. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, iii 352.

  67. Ibid., ii 211.

  68. Ibid., 148-60.

  69. Waxman, op. cit., 32-6.

  70. Ibid., 108ff.; Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, ii 225.

  71. Waxman, op. cit., 112.

  72. Mattenot Aniyim 9:3; quoted in Israel S. Chipkin, ‘Judaism and Social Welfare’, in Louis Finkelstein (ed.), The Jews, 2 vols (London 1961), i 1043-76.

  73. Baba Batra 8a.

  74. Quoted in Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, ii 142.

  75. Baba Batra 110a; Pesahim 113a; quoted in Chipkin, op. cit., 1067.

  76. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, ii 138-42, and appendices A, B, C.

  77. Ibid., ii 287.

  78. Ibid., ii 279.

  79. B. Blumenkranz, Juifs et Chrétiens dans le monde occidental 430-1096 (Paris 1960).

  80. Quoted in Cecil Roth, ‘The Medieval Conception of “The Unbelieving Jew”’, in Personalities and Events.

  81. A. M. Haberman (ed.), Massacres of Germany and France (Jerusalem 1946).

  82. Ibid., 94; quoted in Ben-Sasson, op. cit.

  83. Cecil Roth, The Jews of Medieval Oxford (Oxford 1951), 83.

  84. Nikolaus Pevsner and John Harris, The Buildings of England: Lincolnshire (Harmondsworth 1964), 158-9.

  85. V. D. Lipman, The Jews of Medieval Norwich (London 1967).

  86. Cecil Roth, Intellectual Activities of Medieval English Jewry (British Academy, London 1949), 65, gives list of doctors.

  87. Lipman, op. cit., ch. 6, 95-112.

  88. Augustus Jessop and M. R. James (eds), The Life and Miracles of St William of Norwich by Thomas of Monmouth (Cambridge 1896).

  89. Lipman, op. cit., 54.

  90. Roth, Personalities and Events, 62-6, and his The Ritual Murder Libel and the Jews (London 1935); see also G. I. Langmuir, Speculum (1972), 459-82.

  91. Ralph de Diceto, Imagines Historiarum, ii 78, quoted in Lipman, op. cit.

  92. Roth, Personalities and Events, 61-2.

  93. Lipman, op. cit., 59-64.

  94. Roth’s book on ritual murder prints the refutation by Pope Clement XIV in 1759.

  95. Richard W. Emery, The Jews of Perpignan (New York 1959), ch. 4.

  96. M. D. Davis, Shetaroth: Hebrew Deeds of English Jews Before 1290 (London 1888), 298ff, quoted in Lipman, op. cit., 88; Lipman prints a number of debtbonds and quit-deeds, 187ff.

  97. Quoted in Lipman, op. cit.

  98. Ibid., 68.

  99. H. G. Richardson, English Jewry under the Angevin Kings (London 1960), 247-53; 127-73.

  100. J. W. F. Hill, Medieval Lincoln (London 1948), 217-22.

  101. Richardson, op. cit., 184-6: M. Adler, Jews of Medieval England (London 1939).

  102. Ibid., 313-33.

  103. Solomon Grayzel, The Church and the Jews in the Thirteenth Century (New York, new edn 1966), 108.

  104. ‘The People and the Book’, in Cecil Roth, Personalities and Events, 174-5.

  105. ‘The Medieval University and the Jew’, in ibid., 91ff.

  106. Translated, 1933, My Life as German and Jew.

  107. Jeremy Cohen, The Friars and the Jews: The Evolution of Medieval Anti-Semitism (Cornell 1982), 14.

  108. Ibid., 242.

  109. Pierre Mandonnet, St Dominic and His Work (trans., St Louis 1944), 61.

  110. Cohen, op. cit., 13.

  111. A. G. Little, ‘Friar Henry of Wadstone and the Jews’, Collecteana franciscana 11 (Manchester 1922), 150-7; quoted in Cohen, op. cit.

  112. Quoted in Ben Sasson, op. cit.

  113. Encyclopaedia Judaica, iv 1063-8; P. Ziegler, The Black Death (London 1969).

  114. See map in Encyclopaedia Judaica, iv 1066, for towns where atrocities occurred.

  115. Hyam Maccoby (ed. and trans.), Judaism on Trial: Jewish-Christian Disputations in the Middle Ages (New Jersey 1982).

  116. Quoted in Grayzel, op. cit., 241, note 96.

  117. Quoted in Maccoby, op. cit., 32.

  118. Ibid., 25ff.

  119. Quoted in Ben Sasson, op. cit., 557-8.

  120. Maccoby, op. cit., 54.

  121. Cecil Roth, ‘The Disputation at Barcelona’, Harvard Theological Review, xliii (1950).

  122. Martin A. Cohen, ‘Reflections on the Text and Context of the Disputation at Barcelona’, Hebrew Union College Annual (1964); Y. Baer, A History of the Jews in Christian Spain, 2 vols (trans., Philadelphia 1961-6), i 150-62.

  123. Maccoby, op. cit., 50.

  124. Quoted in Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah 1626-76 (trans., London 1973), 12.

  125. Peter Lineham, Spanish Church and Society (London 1983).

  126. M. M. Gorce, St Vincent Ferrer (Paris 1935).

  127. For Tortosa, see Maccoby, op. cit.; A. Pacios Lopez, La Disputa de Tortosa, 2 vols (Madrid 1957).

  128. Quoted in Maccoby, op. cit., 84.

  129. Ibid., 86.

  130. A. Farinelli, Marrano: storia di un vituperio (Milan 1925), 36.

  131. Quoted in Haim Beinart, Conversos on Trial: The Inquisition in Ciudad Real (Jerusalem 1981), 3.

  132. Quoted in Ibid., 3, footnote 4.

  133. Quoted in ibid., 6.

  134. Baer, op. cit., ii 292.

  135. Quoted in Beinart, op. cit., 66.

  136. Ibid., 10-19.

  137. Ibid., 34, footnote 40; H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition in Spain, 4 vols (New York 1906-7), vol. i for origins.

  138. For detailed figures see Elkan Nathan Adler, Auto da Fé and Jew (Oxford 1908), esp. ch. viii, 39ff.

  139. Beinart, op. cit., 36-42.

  140. Lea, op. cit., i 178.

  141. G. A. Bergenroth (ed.), Calendar of Letters…from Simancas (London 1861), i Henry VII, xxxivff.; quoted in Beinart, op. cit., 28.

  142. Quoted in Baer, op. cit., ii 382.

  143. Beinart, op. cit., 130-5; 204-31. See also his Records of the Trials of the Spanish Inquisition in Ciudad Real, 3 vols (Jerusalem 1974-80).

  144. Lea, op. cit., iii 83ff.

  145. Beinart, op. cit., 194.

  146. For distinctions see H. J. Zimmels, Askenazim and Sephardim (New York 1958).

  147. M. Kaiserling, Christopher Columbus and the Participation of the Jews in the Portuguese and Spanish Discoveries (London 1907); Cecil Roth, ‘Who Was Columbus?’, in Personalities and Events, 192ff.

  148. Cecil Roth, ‘The Jewish Ancestry of Michel de Montaigne’, in Personalities and Events, 212ff., prints his family tree on p. 324. See also Chaim Raphael, ‘The Sephardi Diaspora’ in The Road from Babylon: The Story of Sephardi and Oriental Jews (London 1985), 127-58.

  149. Leon Poliakov, Les Banquiers juifs et le Saint Siège du xiii au xvii siècles (Paris 1965), 80-4, 147-56.

  150. Isaiah Shachar, The Judensau: A Medieval Anti-Jewish Motif and its History (London 1974).

  151. H. C. J. Duijker and N. H. Frijda, National Character and National Stereotypes (Amsterdam 1960); see also H. Fiscg, The Dual Image (New York 1971).

  PART FOUR: GHETTO

  1. G. K. Anderson, The Legend of the Wandering Jew (London 1965); S. W. Baron, Social and Religious History of the Jews (2nd
edn, New York, 1952), 11 177-82; Encyclopaedia Judaica, xvi 259-63.

  2. Quoted in Lionel Kochan, The Jew and his History (London 1977), 39; see also Arthur A. Cohen, The Natural and Supernatural Jew (London 1967), 12ff.

  3. Encyclopaedia Judaica, viii 1203-5.

  4. Cecil Roth, Jewish Communities: Venice (Philadelphia 1930), 49ff.

  5. Cecil Roth, ‘The Origin of the Ghetto’, in Personalities and Events in Jewish History (Philadelphia 1961), 226ff.

  6. Roth, Venice, 106-7.

  7. Ibid., 46.

  8. Simhah Luzzatto, Essay on the Jews of Venice (trans., Jerusalem 1950), 122-3.

  9. Esther 2:3.

  10. Quoted in H. H. Ben Sasson (ed.), A History of the Jewish People (trans., Harvard 1976), 691.

  11. J. Bloch, Venetian Printers of Hebrew Books (London 1932), 5-16; Encyclopaedia Judaica, v 197; xvi 101; iv 1195-7.

  12. Quoted in Cecil Roth, ‘The Background of Shylock’, in Personalities and Events, 237ff.

  13. Quoted in ibid., 250.

  14. Ibid., 288-9.

  15. Israel Adler, ‘The Rise of Art Music in the Italian Ghetto’, in Alexander Altmann (ed.), Jewish Medieval and Renaissance Studies (Harvard 1967), 321-64.

  16. Roth, Personalities and Events, 1-3.

  17. Alexander Marx, ‘A Jewish Cause Célèbre in Sixteenth Century Italy’, Studies in Jewish History and Booklore (New York 1969), 107-54.

  18. Cecil Roth, ‘The Amazing Abraham Colorni’, in Personalities and Events, 296ff.

  19. Cecil Roth, ‘A Community of Slaves’, in Personalities and Events, 112ff.

  20. Quoted in ibid., 114-15.

  21. W. L. Gundersheimer, ‘Erasmus, Humanism and the Christian Kabbalah’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institute, 26 (1963), 38-52.

  22. Quoted in Jonathan I. Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism (Oxford 1985), 15.

  23. Cf. W. Linden (ed.), Luther’s Kampfschriften gegen das Judentum (Berlin 1936).

  24. Baron, op. cit., xiii 281-90.

  25. Israel, op. cit., 13.

  26. Ibid., 16.

  27. K. R. Stow, Catholic Thought and Papal Jewry Policy 1555-1593 (New York 1977).

  28. Brian Pulhan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice 1550-1670 (Oxford 1983), ch. 2.

  29. Ibid., 21.

  30. See, for instance, H. R. Trevor-Roper, Religion, the Reformation and Social Change (London 1967).

  31. Manasseh ben Israel, ‘The Hope of Israel’ (London 1652), printed in Lucien Wolf (ed.), Manasseh ben Israel’s Mission to Oliver Cromwell (London 1901), 50-1.