The Truth Machine

by Geoffrey C. Bunn

6. Alison Young, Imagining Crime: Textual Outlaws and Criminal Conversations (London: Sage, 1996), 31.

  7. Elizabeth V. Spelman, “Woman as Body: Ancient and Contemporary Views,” in Feminist Theory and the Body: A Reader, ed. Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), 39.

  8. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 189–90.

  9. Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1983).

  10. Natalie Zemon Davis, “Gender and Sexual Temperament,” in The Polity Reader in Gender Studies (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 129–34.

  11. Merchant, The Death of Nature.

  12. Zemon Davis, “Gender and Sexual Temperament,” 131.

  13. Quoted in Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 90.

  14. Shapin, A Social History of Truth, 83–84.

  15. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 149.

  16. Susan J. Hekman, Gender and Knowledge: Elements of a Postmodern Feminism (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 111.

  17. Quoted in Eva Figes, Patriarchal Attitudes: Women in Society (New York: Persea Books, 1970), 122.

  18. Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct, 13.

  19. Ibid., 25.

  20. Quoted by Marina Benjamin, “Introduction,” in Science and Sensibility, ed. Benjamin, 1.

  21. Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct, 183.

  22. Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nineteenth-Century America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 20.

  23. Darwin quoted in Figes, Patriarchal Attitudes, 113–14.

  24. Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 6.

  25. Geneviève Fraisse, “A Philosophical History of Sexual Difference,” in A History of Women in the West: IV, Emerging Feminism from Revolution to World War, ed. Geneviève Fraisse and Michelle Perrot (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 61.

  26. George Beard, American Nervousness: Its Causes and Consequences (New York: Putnam, 1881), vi.

  27. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 18301980 (London: Virago Press, 1987), 122.

  28. Quoted in Toril Moi, What is a Woman? And Other Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 18.

  29. Showalter, Female Malady, 122.

  30. Moscucci, “Hermaphroditism and Sex Difference,” 193.

  31. Dr. M. L. Holbrook (1882) quoted in Poovey, Uneven Developments, 35.

  32. Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct, 22–23.

  33. Carole Pateman, The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), 18.

  34. Ibid., 76.

  35. Quoted in ibid., 76

  36. Kant (1764) quoted in Lorraine Daston, “The Naturalized Female Intellect,” in Historical Dimensions of Psychological Discourse, ed. Carl F. Graumann and Kenneth J. Gergen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 186.

  37. Figes, Patriarchal Attitudes, 123.

  38. Ibid., 124.

  39. Ibid., 125.

  40. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 100.

  41. Ibid., 31, 164.

  42. On hysteria see Rachel P. Maines, The Technology of Orgasm: “Hysteria,” The Vibrator, and Women’s Sexual Satisfaction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).

  43. Mark Micale, Approaching Hysteria: Disease and its Interpretations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 57.

  44. Physiology, Medicine etc. (London: Spottiswoode & Co., n.d. [published before 1860])

  45. Showalter, Female Malady, 145.

  46. Jane Ussher, Women’s Madness: Misogyny or Mental Illness? (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 91.

  47. Showalter, The Female Malady, 121–64.

  48. Micale, Approaching Hysteria, 225.

  49. Mark Micale, “Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain,” in Science and Sensibility, ed. Benjamin, 200–39. Quote on 205–6.

  50. Unattributed, quoted in Juliet Mitchell, Women: The Longest Revolution: Essays in Feminism, Literature and Psychoanalysis (London: Virago, 1984), 115.

  51. Micale, “Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female,” 205–6.

  52. Maudsley (1895) quoted in Showalter, The Female Malady, 133–34.

  53. Physiology, Medicine etc.

  54. Quoted in Poovey, Uneven Developments, 45–46.

  55. Ibid., 46.

  56. W. L. Distant, “On the Mental Differences Between the Sexes,” The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 4 (1875): 84.

  57. Mary Gibson, Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 65.

  58. Lombroso and Ferrero cited in Gibson, Born to Crime, 64.

  59. Bela Földes, “The Criminal,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 69, no. 3 (September 1906): 559.

  60. Maudsley (1874) quoted in Lucia Zedner, Women, Crime and Custody in Victorian England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 87.

  61. Havelock Ellis (1904) quoted in Zedner, Women, Crime and Custody, 87.

  62. D. G. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII: The Criminal Anthropology of Woman,” Science 19, no. 487 (June 3, 1892): 316.

  63. Cesare Lombroso and Guglielmo Ferrero, The Female Offender (New York: D. Appleton, 1895), 147.

  64. David G. Horn, The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance (London: Routledge, 2003), 70.

  65. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 148.

  66. Ibid., 25.

  67. Gibson, Born to Crime, 61.

  68. Ottolengh (1896) cited in Gibson, Born to Crime, 62.

  69. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 111.

  70. Lombroso (1892) quoted in Marie-Christine Leps, Apprehending the Criminal: The Production of Deviance in Nineteenth-Century Discourse (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 62.

  71. Brinton, “Current Notes on Anthropology.—VII,” 316.

  72. A figure confirmed by Földes, “The Criminal,” 560, but referring to crime in general across nations.

  73. Zedner, Women, Crime and Custody, 1.

  74. Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 130.

  75. Gibson, Born to Crime, 69. But see Matthew C. Scheider “Moving Past Biological Determinism in Discussions of Women and Crime during the 1870s-1920s: A Note Regarding the Literature,” Deviant Behavior 21, no. 5 (2000): 407–27.

  76. Horn, The Criminal Body, 332.

  77. Földes, “The Criminal,” 558–59.

  78. Piers Beirne, “Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology,” American Journal of Sociology 92, no. 5 (1987): 1157.

  79. Földes, “The Criminal,” 562.

  80. Cited in Gibson, Born to Crime, 75.

  81. Gibson, Born to Crime, 88.

  82. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 154.

  83. Gibson, Born to Crime, 88.

  84. Adalbert Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso: A Glance at His Life Work,” Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 1, no. 2 (July 1910): 80.

  85. Quoted in Kelly Hurley, The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-de-Siècle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98.

  86. Laqueur, Making Sex, 230.

  87. Peter J. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre in Law, Literature and Aesthetics (London: Routledge, 2001), 104.

  88. Quoted in Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 106.

  89. Quoted in Frances A. Kellor, “Ps
ychological and Environmental Study of Women Criminals I,” The American Journal of Sociology 5, no. 4 (January 1900): 531.

  90. Ibid., 57–58.

  91. Ibid., 50.

  92. Ibid., 99.

  93. Ibid., 100–101.

  94. Ibid., 107.

  95. Quoted in Marvin E. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” in Pioneers in Criminology, ed. Hermann Mannheim, 2nd ed. (Montclair: Patterson Smith, 1972), 255.

  96. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 101.

  97. Ibid., 102.

  98. Ibid., 107–111.

  99. Ibid., 110.

  100. Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso,” 77.

  101. Havelock Ellis, The Criminal, 5th ed. (London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co., 1916), 268.

  102. Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso,” 79.

  103. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 150–51.

  104. Albrecht, “Cesare Lombroso,” 79.

  105. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, 2nd ed. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1907), 20–21.

  106. David Horn, “Making Criminologists: Tools, Techniques, and the Production of Scientific Authority,” in Criminals and their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective, ed. Peter Becker and Richard F. Wetzell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 322–23.

  107. Horn, The Criminal Body, 89.

  108. Cesare Lombroso, “The Physical Insensibility of Women,” Fortnightly Review n.s. 51 (1892): 354–57.

  109. Mary Gibson, “On the Insensitivity of Women: Science and the Woman Question in Liberal Italy, 1890–1910,” Journal of Women’s History 2, no. 2 (1990): 11–41.

  110. Gibson, Born to Crime, chap. 2.

  111. Cited in Hurley, The Gothic Body, 98.

  112. Lombroso and Ferrero, The Female Offender, 151.

  113. Thomas M. Dixon, From Passions to Emotions: The Creation of a Secular Psychological Category (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 164.

  114. Quoted in Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 102.

  115. M. E. Owen, “Criminal Women,” Cornhill Magazine 14 (August 1866): 152–53.

  116. Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1873), 334.

  117. Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, 346–47.

  118. Horn, “Making Criminologists,” 331.

  119. Havelock Ellis, The Criminal, 138.

  120. Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, 326.

  121. Dixon, From Passions to Emotion.

  122. Otniel E. Dror, “The Scientific Image of Emotion: Experience and Technologies of Inscription,” Configurations 7, no. 3 (1999): 357.

  123. Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York: Basic, 1990), 96.

  124. Dror, “The Scientific Image of Emotion,” 358.

  125. Ibid.

  126. Otniel E. Dror, “Techniques of the Brain and the Paradox of Emotions, 1880–1930,” Science in Context 14, no. 4 (2001): 646.

  127. Horn, The Criminal Body, 119.

  128. Ibid., 122.

  129. Wolfgang, “Cesare Lombroso, 1835–1909,” 237.

  130. Horn, The Criminal Body, 96; Hurley, The Gothic Body, 100.

  131. Horn, “Making Criminologists,” 321.

  132. Horn, The Criminal Body, 26.

  133. Lombroso (1891) quoted in Hurley, The Gothic Body, 101.

  134. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, 47.

  135. Quoted in Horn, The Criminal Body, 127.

  136. Horn, The Criminal Body, 128.

  137. J[oseph] J[astrow], “Illustrations of Recent Italian Psychology,” Science 6, no. 144 (November 6, 1885): 413–15.

  138. Lombroso and Ferrero, quoted in Horn, The Criminal Body, 126.

  139. Horn, The Criminal Body, 84.

  140. Cited in Horn, The Criminal Body, 85.

  141. Ibid., 86.

  142. Enrico Ferri, Criminal Sociology, trans. “W. D. M.” (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1895), 166–67.

  143. Gabriel Tarde, Penal Philosophy, trans. Rapelje Howell (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1912), 63–64.

  144. Gina Lombroso-Ferrero, Criminal Man: According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso (Montclair: Patterson Smith, 1911/1972), 223.

  145. Ibid., 224–25.

  146. Arthur Macdonald, “The Study of Crime and Criminals,” The Chautauquan 18 (1893): 265–70.

  147. Ibid., 268–69.

  148. Cesare Lombroso, Crime: Its Causes and Remedies (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1911), 254.

  149. See Helen Zimmern, “Criminal Anthropology in Italy,” Popular Science Monthly 52, 1897–98, 743–60.

  150. Quoted in Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 107.

  151. Ibid., 110.

  152. Horn, The Criminal Body, 141.

  153. Ibid., 87.

  154. Young, Imagining Crime, 27.

  Chapter 4. “Fearful errors lurk in our nuptial couches”: The Critique of Criminal Anthropology

  Epigraph. Alfred Austin, “Our Novels: The Sensation School,” Temple Bar 29 (1879): 422.

  1. John Kucich, The Power of Lies: Transgression in Victorian Fiction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).

  2. Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 245.

  3. Ibid., 244.

  4. Kate Summerscale, The Suspicions of Mr. Whicher or The Murder at Road Hill House (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), xi.

  5. “Celebrated Crimes and Criminals—No. XIII,” The Sporting Times 1248, Saturday, August 20, 1887, 2.

  6. Peter J. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre in Law, Literature and Aesthetics (London: Routledge, 2001), 28.

  7. Ronald R. Thomas, “The Lie Detector and the Thinking Machine,” in Detective Fiction and the Rise of Forensic Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 35.

  8. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 247.

  9. Alfred Austin, “Our Novels: The Sensational School,” Temple Bar 29 (June 1870): 422.

  10. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 248.

  11. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 93.

  12. Alison Young, Imagining Crime: Textual Outlaws and Criminal Conversations (London: Sage, 1996), 109.

  13. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 245.

  14. Marie-Christine Leps, Apprehending the Criminal: The Production of Deviance in Nineteenth-Century Discourse (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), 94.

  15. Ibid., 99.

  16. Ibid., 113.

  17. Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 4.

  18. Ibid., 163.

  19. Nils Clausson, “Degeneration, Fin-de-Siècle Gothic, and the Science of Detection: Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Hound of the Baskervilles and the Emergence of the Modern Detective Story,” Journal of Narrative Theory 35, no. 1 (2005): 64, 76.

  20. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 173.

  21. Nicole Hahn Rafter, Creating Born Criminals (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 38.

  22. Kelly Hurley, The Gothic Body: Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin-de-Siècle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 4.

  23. Ibid., 63.

  24. Ibid., 4.

  25. Ibid., 60.

  26. Peter J. Bowler, The Non-Darwinian Revolution: Reinterpreting a Historical Myth (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).

  27. Hurley, The Gothic Body, 8.

  28. Leps, Apprehending the Criminal, 218.

  29. Quoted in Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 171.

  30. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 12.

  31. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 171.

  32. Conan Doyle, “A Scandal in Bohemia” (1891), quoted in Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 222.

  33. Quoted in Clausson, “Degeneration,” 61.

  34. Quoted in Clausson, “
Degeneration,” 74–75, 97 (emphasis added).

  35. Ibid., 63.

  36. Judith Wilt, “The Imperial Mouth: Imperialism, the Gothic and Science Fiction.” Journal of Popular Culture 14, no. 4 (1981): 618–28.

  37. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 223.

  38. See Ronald R. Thomas, “The Fingerprints of the Foreigner: Colonizing the Criminal Body in 1980s Detective Fiction and Criminal Anthropology,” ELH 61, no. 3 (1994): 655–83.

  39. Quoted in Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 220.

  40. Clausson, “Degeneration,” 77.

  41. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 187.

  42. Conan Doyle, “The Final Problem” (1893), quoted in Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 194.

  43. Lombroso in The Man of Genius (1864/1891), quoted in Hurley, The Gothic Body, 67.

  44. Hutchings, The Criminal Spectre, 194–95.

  45. Quoted in Hurley, The Gothic Body, 42.

  46. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 251–52.

  47. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 158.

  48. Hurley, The Gothic Body, 104.

  49. Ibid., 103.

  50. Ibid., 109. Moreau’s namesake was Jacques-Joseph Moreau, whose Morbid Psychology (1859) posited that the over-excitation of the intellect atrophies the moral sensibility. The book was also an inspiration for Lombroso.

  51. Hurley, The Gothic Body, 108.

  52. Ibid., 113.

  53. Marion Shaw, “‘To Tell the Truth of Sex’: Confession and Abjection in Late Victorian Writing,” in Rewriting the Victorians: Theory, History, and the Politics of Gender, ed. Linda M. Shires (New York: Routledge, 1992), 92.

  54. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal, 254.

  55. Piers Beirne, “Heredity vs Environment: A Reconsideration of Charles Goring’s The English Convict (1913),” British Journal of Criminology 28 (1988): 315–39.

  56. W. D. Morrison, “The Study of Crime,” Mind n.s. 1, no. 4 (October 1892): 489–517.

  57. Ibid., 506, 508.

  58. “Review of Criminology by Arthur MacDonald,” Science 21, no. 523 (February 10, 1893): 83.

  59. Gustave Tarde, “Is There a Criminal Type?,” Charities Review 6, no. 2 (April 1897): 110.

  60. Dr. H. S. Williams, “Can the Criminal Be Reclaimed?,” North American Review 163, no. 2 (August 1896): 207–18.

  61. Ibid., 207.

  62. Ibid., 208

  63. Ibid., 210.

  64. Ibid., 211.

  65. Ibid., 212.

  66. Ibid., 213.