45. Schrag, “Appalachia,” 16.
46. See Bill Peterson, “Political Battle Brewing on Anti-Poverty Program,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 20, 1969, and “Poverty: Feud in the Hills,” Time, September 12, 1969, 21.
47. K. W. Lee, “Catalyst of the Black Lung Movement,” in Walls and Stephenson, Appalachia in the Sixties, 201–9.
48. Carawan and Carawan, Voices from the Mountains, 172–80.
49. Richard P. Mulcahy, A Social Contract for the Coal Fields: The Rise and Fall of the United Mine Workers of America Welfare and Retirement Fund (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000), 147–48; Caudill, Watches of the Night, 53–55.
50. Caudill, Watches of the Night, 147–72.
51. George Vecsey, “Ideal of Unity Stirs Appalachian Poor,” New York Times, April 23, 1972.
52. For the history of the MFD movement, see George W. Hopkins, “The Miners for Democracy: Insurgency in the United Mine Workers of America, 1970–1972” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 1976); Seltzer, Fire in the Hole; and Paul J. Nyden, “Miners for Democracy: Struggle in the Coal Fields” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1974).
53. The best history of the struggle against surface mining in Appalachia is Montrie, To Save the Land.
54. Montrie, To Save the Land, 102.
55. Ibid., 104–5, 149.
56. See Thomas N. Bethell and Davitt McAteer, The Pittston Mentality: Manslaughter on Buffalo Creek (Huntington, WV: Appalachian Movement Press, 1972), and Kai T. Erikson, Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976).
57. Mountain Life and Work, June–July 1972, 20–22; Montrie, To Save the Land, 149–51.
58. Ben A. Franklin, “President Signs Strip Mining Bill, but Cites Defects,” New York Times, August 4, 1972.
59. Mountain Life and Work, November 1971, 22–30, June–July 1972, 20–21.
60. Mountain Life and Work, March 1972, 10.
61. Mountain Life and Work, January 1970, 8.
62. Bryan Woolley, “Challenge for a Mountain Man,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 27, 1970.
63. Mountain Life and Work, June–July 1972, 22.
64. Mountain Life and Work, November 1972, 27.
65. Mountain Life and Work, October 1977, 40, September 1977, 46, August 1977, 46.
66. Appalachian Land Ownership Task Force, Who Owns Appalachia? Landownership and Its Impact (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983). See also Steve Fisher, ed., A Landless People in a Rural Region: A Reader on Land Ownership and Property Taxation in Appalachia (New Market, TN: Highlander Research and Education Center, 1979).
67. See Jim White, Ronald D Eller, and Debbie Auer, Coal Severance Taxation: A Comparison of State Strategies for Collection and Distribution (Lexington: University of Kentucky Appalachian Center, 1992).
68. Branscome, Federal Government in Appalachia, 37–39.
69. Virginia Wilson, Economic Analysis of a Proposed Property Tax on Unmined Minerals in Kentucky, Appalachian Center Occasional Paper Series no. 1 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Appalachian Center, 1983); Judy Jones, “Kentucky Lax on Coal Tax,” Lexington Herald-Leader, October 27, 1998.
70. See Melanie Zuercher, ed., Making History: The First Ten Years of the KFTC (Prestonsburg, KY: Kentuckians for the Commonwealth, 1991).
71. People’s Appalachia 1, no. 6 (1971): 3.
72. See Logan Brown et al., “ASA History,” Appalachian Journal 31, no. 1 (2003).
73. Branscome quoted in Vecsey, “Ideal of Unity.”
74. Michael Smathers, “Notes of a Native Son,” Vantage Point 2 (1973): 6–7.
5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Robert M. Collins, More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 21, 38–39.
2. Walter Lippmann, Washington Post, March 19, 1964, quoted in Collins, More, 60.
3. Ralph R. Widner, “The Political Implementation of Regional Theory: The Appalachian Experience” (paper presented to the Southern Economic Association, November 13, 1970), 3, Research Reports, Administrative Research Library, Appalachian Regional Commission, Washington, DC (hereafter cited as ARL). See also John Friedman, “Regional Planning as a Field of Study,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 29 (August 1963), and John Friedman, “Regional Planning in Post-Industrial Society,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 30 (May 1964).
4. John L. Preston, “An Analysis of the Growth Center Strategy of the Appalachian Regional Commission” (Appalachian Regional Commission Division of Regional Program Planning and Evaluation Study Paper no. 13, March 1971), 7–8, Research Reports, ARL. See also Niles M. Hansen, Intermediate-Size Cities as Growth Centers: Applications for Kentucky, the Piedmont Crescent, the Ozarks, and Texas (New York: Praeger, 1971), 14–17, 26–28.
5. Widner, “Political Implementation,” 3.
6. Quoted in Albert Solnit, “Deliberate Depopulation of Whole Areas: A Protest,” Whitesburg (KY) Mountain Eagle, August 4, 1966.
7. Quoted in ibid.
8. “The Urban-Rural Growth Strategy in Appalachia” (commission staff summary report, September 1970), 13, Research Reports, ARL.
9. Widner, “Political Implementation,” 5–6.
10. “Urban-Rural Growth Strategy,” 14.
11. Ralph R. Widner, “Planning in Appalachia” (address to the Appalachian Water Development Coordinating Committee, June 15, 1967), 3, Research Reports, ARL.
12. John Fischer, “The Easy Chair: Can Ralph R. Widner Save New York, Chicago, and Detroit?” Harper’s, October 1968.
13. “Urban-Rural Growth Strategy,” 16, 17.
14. Ibid., 18.
15. Ralph R. Widner, “Science, Technology and Regional Development” (paper presented to the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, May 12, 1967, and the University of Tennessee Space Sciences Seminar, Knoxville, TN, May 19, 1967), 8, Research Reports, ARL; Ralph R. Widner, “A Challenge for Action: Research and Planning for Regional Development” (paper presented to the Regional Conference on Research Related to Poverty and Development in Appalachia, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, VA, July 17, 1968), 7, Research Reports, ARL.
16. Ralph R. Widner, “The Application of Systems Planning to Regional Development: The Appalachian Experience” (lecture at Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, April 23, 1969), 5, Research Reports, ARL.
17. Ralph R. Widner, “The Application of Systems Planning to Economic and Social Problems” (remarks to the Systems and Cybernetics Group, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Washington DC, February 19, 1969), 4, Research Reports, ARL.
18. Ralph R. Widner, “Appalachia: America’s Oldest or Newest Frontier” (convocation address at Union College, Barbourville, KY, October 1, 1970), 10, Appalachian Regional Commission Oral History Project conducted by Duke University, Research Reports, ARL.
19. Appalachian Regional Commission, 1971 Annual Report of the Appalachian Regional Commission (Washington, DC: ARC, 1971), 25.
20. Bradshaw, Appalachian Regional Commission, 49.
21. Calvin G. Grayson, “Remarks to the Kentucky Appalachian Task Force” (Hazard, KY, March 29, 1994), in the author’s possession. See also Alice J. Kinder, William C. Hambley: The Mayor Who Moved a Mountain (Berea, KY: Appalachian Imprints, 1988).
22. Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 50; Bradshaw, Appalachian Regional Commission, 50–57.
23. Alvin Arnett, interview, July 5, 1983, audiovisual tape, ARC Archives; Donald Whitehead, interview, July 12, 1983, audiovisual tape, ARC Archives; John Whisman, interview, July 21, 1982, audiovisual tape, ARC Archives.
24. Charles Babcock, “Records Withheld in States’ Probe of ARC Official: Irregularities Questioned,” Louisville Courier-Journal, March 17, 1975.
25. Bradshaw, Appalachian Regional Commission, 58.
26. Arnett, interview.
27. Caudill, “Misdeal in Appala
chia,” 43–47.
28. Harriette Arnow, “The Gray Woman of Appalachia,” Nation, December 28, 1970, 684–87.
29. Ben A. Franklin, “Appalachia Revisited: After Ten Years of Hope, Its Poor Still Waiting for That New Day Coming,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 8, 1970.
30. Bill Peterson, “The Appalachian Commission: Boon or Boondoggle?” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 8–11, 1973.
31. Phil Primack, “Depopulation Plan Advanced by ARC Director,” Whitesburg (KY) Mountain Eagle, June 29, 1972. See also Phil Primack, “ARC: In Case You Were Wondering about ARC but Didn’t Know Where to Look,” Mountain Life and Work, March 1973, 6–8.
32. Howard Bray, “Appalachia: The View from Washington,” Progressive, February 1975, 31–34.
33. ARC Accountability Project, The Appalachian Regional Commission: Boon or Boondoggle—A Citizens’ Handbook on the ARC (Morgan-town, WV: ARC Accountability Project, 1974), 68.
34. Ibid., 70.
35. Collins, More, 108; Bradshaw, Appalachian Regional Commission, 93.
36. See Appalachian Regional Commission, Appalachia: A Reference Book (Washington, DC: ARC, 1977).
37. Appalachian Alliance, Appalachia 1978: A Protest from the Colony (1978), in the author’s possession.
38. John D. Rockefeller IV, interview, “What’s Holding Up the Switch to Coal?” U.S. News and World Report, September 4, 1979, 26–27.
39. Quoted in Collins, More, 149.
40. Martha Cole, “ARC Approves $4 Million in Hospital Aid,” Lexington Herald, May 17, 1978; Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 50; Lexington Leader, August 9, 1978; “Task Force Investigates Landownership,” Mountain Life and Work, September 1979, 22–23; Albert Smith, interview, May 1982, audiovisual tape, ARC Archives.
41. Cole, “ARC Approves.”
42. Lexington Leader, August 9, 1978.
43. See “Women Coal Miners,” special issue, Mountain Life and Work, July–August 1979.
44. John Egerton, “Appalachia’s Absentee Landlords,” Progressive, June 1981, 42–45. See also Appalachian Landownership Task Force, Who Owns Appalachia.
45. Egerton, “Appalachia’s Absentee Landlords,” 44; Gaventa quoted in ibid.
46. Tack Cornelius, “A Kentucky Success Story,” Appalachia: Journal of the Appalachian Regional Commission, January–June 1983.
47. “Appalachia: The Economic Outlook through the Eighties,” Appalachia: Journal of the Appalachian Regional Commission, November–December 1983, 4.
48. Doris Deakin, “Appalachia—on Our Way,” Appalachia: Journal of the Appalachian Regional Commission, March–April 1979, 1, 8.
49. Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 76.
50. “Economic Outlook,” 3.
51. Deakin, “Appalachia,” 12.
52. Quoted in Collins, More, 196.
53. Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 29–30; Bradshaw, Appalachian Regional Commission, 105.
54. Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 55–56.
55. Appalachian Governors, A Report to Congress Concerning the Appalachian Regional Commission (Washington, DC: ARC, 1981), 45.
56. Appalachian Regional Commission, Twenty Years of Progress, 68.
57. Ben A. Franklin, “Despite Twenty Years of Federal Aid, Poverty Still Reigns in Appalachia,” New York Times, August 11, 1985.
58. Lee Mueller, “Can Eastern Kentucky Survive the Budget Cuts?” Lexington Herald, May 31, 1981.
59. Richard A. Couto, An American Challenge: A Report on Economic Trends and Social Issues in Appalachia (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1994), 83, 105.
60. Ibid., 137, 145.
61. Ibid., 46.
62. Rick Steelhammer, “How Bad Is It? West Virginians Stand at an Economic Crossroads,” Charleston (WV) Gazette, December 1989.
63. Claire Ansberry and Rick Wartzman, “State of Despair: West Virginia Mired in Poverty, Corruption, Battles a Deep Gloom,” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 1989. See also Kate Long, “Almost Broke, West Virginia,” Southern Exposure, Fall 1988, 56–59.
64. Fred Brown, “Appalachia: Land of Pain and Poverty,” Knoxville (TN) News-Sentinel, January 5–11, 1985.
65. Francis J. Rivers, “People and Jobs in the Southwest Virginia Coalfields” (unpublished report prepared for the Commission on Religion in Appalachia and Community College Ministries, March 1989), in the author’s possession.
66. This and the following data are from Ronald D Eller et al., Kentucky’s Distressed Communities: A Report on Poverty in Appalachian Kentucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky Appalachian Center, 1994).
67. James E. Casto, “Clinton Visits Appalachia,” Appalachia: Journal of the Appalachian Regional Commission, May–August 1999, 4.
68. Eller et al., Kentucky’s Distressed Communities.
69. Casto, “Clinton Visits Appalachia,” 4.
70. Bill Estep, “More Jobs and Hope,” Lexington Herald-Leader, July 6, 1999.
71. Don Edwards, “Looking Forward Instead of Backward,” Lexington Herald-Leader, July 6, 1999.
6. THE NEW APPALACHIA
1. Jack Hurst, “Business, Industry, and Technology,” in Encyclopedia of Appalachia, ed. Rudy Abramson and Jean Haskell (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2006), 441.
2. John Hoke, “Coalfields in Decline,” Richmond (VA) Times-Dispatch, February 28, 1996; “Coal Mining Only Top Industry Now Showing Job Loss,” Whitesburg (KY) Mountain Eagle, July 1, 1996; Hurst, “Business, Industry,” 441.
3. William Keesler, “Is Coal All There Is?” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 12, 1989; Hoke, “Coalfields in Decline.”
4. See Shannon Jones, “In the Background of the Sago Mine Disaster,” pt. 2, World Socialist Web Site, January 26, 2006, http://www.wsws.org/articles/2006/jan2006/mine-j26.shtml, and Richard A. Brisbin Jr., A Strike like No Other Strike: Law and Resistance during the Pittston Coal Strike of 1989–1990 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
5. Erik Reece, Lost Mountain: A Year in the Vanishing Wilderness; Radical Strip Mining and the Devastation of Appalachia (New York: River-head, 2006), 63.
6. Jason Bailey and Liz Natter, Kentucky’s Low Road to Economic Development: What Corporate Subsidies Are Doing to the Commonwealth (Lexington, KY: Democracy Resource Center, 2000), 25.
7. Reece, Lost Mountain, 58.
8. J. Bradford Jensen, Birth and Death of Manufacturing Plants and Restructuring in Appalachia’s Industrial Economy, 1963–1992: Evidence from the Longitudinal Research Database (Washington, DC: ARC, 1998), 4.
9. Angie Newsome, “Region Struggles with Layoffs as Money for Incentive Programs Goes Elsewhere,” Asheville (NC) Citizen-Times, November 27, 2005.
10. Bill Bishop, “Tax Incentives Do a Triple Flop,” Lexington Herald-Leader, April 18, 1999.
11. Bill Estep and John Stamper, “Bad Breaks: Places like Harlan County Can’t Hold Jobs or Plants for Long,” Lexington Herald-Leader, November 13, 2005.
12. Lance Williams, “State Sues Harlan Factory for Failure to Provide Jobs,” Lexington Herald-Leader, March 3, 2000.
13. Estep and Stamper, “Bad Breaks”; Bill Estep and John Stamper, “A Lot of Job Sites, Not So Many Jobs,” Lexington Herald-Leader, November 20, 2005. See also Jason Bailey and Justin Maxson, Accounting for Impact: Economic Development Spending in Kentucky (Berea, KY: Mountain Association for Community Economic Development, 2006).
14. A cluster of communities around Clay County in West Virginia received an “enterprise community” award of $3 million.
15. J. Norman Reid, “Empowering the Way Out of Poverty: Why It Matters, How It Works” (paper delivered at the National Association of Resource Conservation and Development Councils Forum against Poverty, Tunica, MS, April 23, 2002). Reid was the acting deputy administrator of the USDA’s Office of Community Development.
16. Kentucky Highlands Investment Corporation, Kentucky Highlands Empowerment Zone 10 Year
Report: A Common Belief That Progress Is Possible (London, KY: KHIC, 2004), 1–34.
17. Ty Tagami, “Critics Assail Chicken Plant’s Tax Incentives,” Lexington Herald-Leader, April 29, 1999.
18. “Economic Incentives: Annville’s Losses Revive Hard Questions,” Lexington Herald-Leader, February 21, 2006.
19. See Eve S. Weinbaum, To Move a Mountain: The Global Economy in Appalachia (New York: Norton, 2004).
20. Kelvin M. Pollard, Appalachia at the Millennium: An Overview of Results from Census 2000 (Washington, DC: ARC, 2003), 17–18; Lawrence E. Wood, Trends in National and Regional Economic Distress, 1960–2000 (Washington, DC: ARC, 2005), 16.
21. Pollard, Appalachia at the Millennium, 20.
22. Deborah Thorne, Ann Tickameyer, and Mark Thorne, “Poverty and Income in Appalachia,” Journal of Appalachian Studies 10 (2004): 345.
23. Jared Bernstein, Elizabeth McNichol, and Karen Lyons, Pulling Apart: A State-by-State Analysis of Income Trends (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2006), 20.
24. Thorne, Tickameyer, and Thorne, “Poverty and Income,” 351.
25. See Leslie A. Whitener, Robert Gibbs, and Lorin Kusmin, “Rural Welfare Reform: Lessons Learned,” Amber Waves, June 2003; Evelyn Nieves, “Job Market in W. Va. Defies Efforts to Reform Welfare,” Washington Post, July 24, 2005; John Cheves, “Welfare Reform Swells SSI Lists,” Lexington Herald-Leader, August 22, 2002; and Tammy Werner and Joanna Badagliacco, “Appalachian Households and Families in the New Millennium,” Journal of Appalachian Studies 10 (2004): 387.
26. Evelyn Nieves, “Anger at Being Part of the Poverty Tour,” New York Times, September 26, 2000.
27. Thomas C. Shaw, Allan J. DeYoung, and Eric Rademacher, “Educational Attainment in Appalachia: Growing with the Nation but Challenges Remain,” Journal of Appalachian Studies 10 (2004).
28. Bruce Behringer, “Health Care Services in Appalachia,” in Sowing Seeds in the Mountains: Community-Based Coalitions for Cancer Prevention and Control, ed. Richard A. Couto, Nancy K. Simpson, and Gale Harris (Bethesda, MD: Appalachia Leadership Initiative on Cancer, Cancer Control Sciences Program, Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, National Cancer Institute, 1994); Jeffrey Stensland, Curt Mueller, and Janet Sutton, introduction to An Analysis of Financial Conditions of Health Care Institutions in the Appalachian Region and Their Economic Impacts (Washington, DC: ARC, 2002), iii–v.
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