11 The Ablution Tower on the Haram. Reproduced with kind permission of J. M. Landay, Dome of the Rock Three Faiths of Jerusalem (The Reader’s Digest Association Ltd., 1980)
12 The Latin cathedral dedicated to St Antony, Famagusta, Cyprus. From Müller-Wiener, Castles of the Crusaders
13 Bodrum – an engraved slab, 1472, showing the arms of the Grand Master. From Müller-Wiener, Castles of the Crusaders
14 King Ibn Saud. Picture dated to 1927, source unknown, Wikicommons.
15 Sultan Atrash, Druze Leader. Photo: ©Pictures from History/Bridgeman Images
16 Sir Mark Sykes, MP for Hull. Photo: ©Getty Images
17 F. Georges-Picot, French Colonialist. From: James Barr, A Line in the Sand, Britain, France and the Struggle for Mastery of the Middle East (Simon and Schuster UK Ltd., 2001)
While every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders of illustrations, the author and publishers would be grateful for information about any illustrations where they have been unable to trace them, and would be glad to make amendments in further editions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks are due to Dr C. Lohmer of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica who has been an unfailing source of references. Professor C. Hillenbrand of Edinburgh answered bibliographical queries. Professor J. France of Swansea sent copies of his articles and has been a major influence on my account of the First Crusade. Professor P. Herde of Würzburg has answered queries, as has Professor M. Barber of Reading. The staff at London Library have shown me great kindness, Readers Digest of New York deserve a special mention for their kindness over photographs, the Thomas Cook archive was unstinting with information and I am much indebted to the secretarial skills of Pauline James especially in electronic crises.
I owe more than I can say to the computer skills and understanding of adult education of my friend and former student Alison Webb and, as always, to my wife’s patience, co-operative work and logical sense.
INDEX
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
A
Aachen 175
and chronicler Albert of 78; Frederick II takes cross at 175
Abaq 123, 124
al-Abbas (Muhammad’s uncle) 3, 39
Abbasid Caliphate 90
origins 39–40, 47; transformed by al-Mansur 40–41, see also Baghdad; and growth of Shiism 42, 43, 47; conflict between heirs of Harun al-Rashid and Mutazilism 43–5; degradation 45, 46, 50, 204; revival under al-Qadir 52; and Tughril Beg 53; reaction to Jerusalem massacre 102; its use of paper 129; supported by Nur al-Din 131; and Saladin 135; victory over Fatimids 135, 146; caliph al-Nasir’s reluctance to aid Saladin 137; execution of last caliph by Mongols 195–6; appointment of puppet caliphs by Baybars 199, 267; and claim to powers of caliphate 202; surrender of caliph to Selim the Grim 229; see also al-Suffa; al-Mahdi; al-Mamin; al-Mamun; al-Mutasim; al-Mutawakkil; al-Muqtadir; al-Mustahir; Abu Muslim
Abd al-Malik, Umayyad caliph supports hereditary caliphate 31; creates the Dome of the Rock 32; carries forward conquest of North Africa 35; and end of civil war 37; Arabic coinage 32
Abdul-Hamid II, Ottoman sultan rejection of constitution 242; modernising of empire 245; claim to revived caliphate and leadership of Muslims against Russia and Western powers, of being concealed crusaders 243–4; repression denounced by Gladstone 242–3; visits by Kaiser Wilhelm II 244–5; ousted by Young Turks 246
Abi Sarh, Abdullah ibn 24, 25
Abi Waqqas, Sa’ad ibn 16
Aboukir Bay, battle of 253, 257
Abraham
and origins of Mecca 8; and Black Stone 9; Mount Moriah as site of his preparation to sacrifice Isaac 18; in Jewish scripture 37; remains discovered at Hebron 105
Abu Bakr (first caliph)
supporter of Muhammad 3–4; leads prayers 4; elected caliph 11–12; chooses title and explains duty; directs apostasy campaigns 12–14; character 3, 12, 21, 29; effects of reign 20; children 26; see Rightly Guided Caliphs, Quraysh, Aisha
‘Abu Bakr’, title mis-adopted by Isil
leader 272–3
Abu Muslim, Umayyad leader 39
Abu Tammam, author of Hamasah 145–7
memorised by Saladin 147, 165
Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
refuge of early Muslims 3; and legend of Prester John diffused by legate at Damietta 180; see also Negus, St Thomas the Apostle
Acre 119
captured by Baldwin the Conqueror 101, 108; taken by Saladin 144; galleys from, used by Saladin against Acre 152; arrival at, of Conrad of Montferrat 144; besieged by Guy of Lusignan 154; then Philip II and Richard 158-9; deaths in siege see Sibylla, Ranulf Glanvill and Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury; blockade 158–9; massacre of garrison and effects 159–60, 161; retained by 1192 treaty 163; see Leopold Duke of Austria; early market court at 107; and peaceful Christian–Muslim settlements 113; capital of later Crusader States 168–9; economic prosperity 169; and pilgrim centre 189; war of Saint-Sabas in 190; refortified by St Louis 188; receives Baybars 197; anchorage at, for ships of the Lord Edward 205; capture of, by Muslims 206-7, 267; and its significance 291; restored to Ottomans by Royal Navy 258
Adam 19, 269
Adela of Normandy 76
Adémar, bishop of Le Puy
spiritual leader of First Crusade 74; revives morale at Antioch with liturgy and discipline 87; death 90; vision of, inspires besiegers of Jerusalem 93, 95
Adémar of Champagne, anti-Semitic chronicler 60, 68, 79, 151
al-Adid, Fatimid Caliph 130, 133, 135
al-Adil, brother of Saladin
fights with him 152; negotiates with Richard 161; outmanoeuvres relatives of Saladin 168; profits from Acre trade 169; avoids crusades 177–8
al-Afdal, Fatimid vizier 88, 92, 98–101, 140, 143
Afghanistan 34
Africa
and Prester John 180; scramble for 244; abuse of labour in, by Leopold II 260
Aga Khan IV, Karim 272
Aga Khan 271
Aghlabid governors of Tunisia 49
Agnes of Courtenay 114
Aigues-Mortes 186
Aimery, King of Jerusalem 172
Ain Jalud, battle of Mamluks against Mongols 197–8, 206 effect on Baybars’s career 267
Aisha, daughter of Abu Bakr;
favourite wife of Muhammad 3; her hut, site of death and burial of Muhammad II; opposes Ali at Battle of Camel and is put in seclusion 26; her favourite soup flavouring prohibited by al-Hakim 56
Aktay 195
Alarcos, victory over Iberian Muslims 175–6
Albert of Aachen, First Crusade chronicler 77-8, 89, 96
Albigensian crusade 175
Aleppo, stronghold of Nur al-Din 111, 117, 120
its Shiite minority and Nur al-Din’s policy 128, 129; use of its prison, 125–6; patronage in, and notable buildings 129; agricultural weakness 123; threat of Manuel Comnenus 124–5; Nur al-Din’s heirs resistance in 136; Saladin succeeds 137, 138, 139; devastated by Mongols 196; capture by Ilkahn 212
Alexander II, tsar of Russia 248
Alexandria, Egypt
conquered by Muslims 19–20; Greek revolt in 24; defended against Franks by Saladin 133–4; western merchants in 169; attacked by Peter I of Cyprus 212
Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine emperor
victor in civil war 53; appeals to West 71–2; treatment of crusades and appointment of Taticius 76, 79–80; and Nicaea 82–3; and Armenians 84–5; rights in Antioch 88–91; effects of apparent desertion of Antioch 89, 119
Alexius III (Isaac Angelus) 173
Alexius IV (Alexius Angelus) 173
Algeria 33
Algiers, conquest of 239
Ali, fourth Caliph
marriage to Fatima 3; relationship to Muhammad 4, 8, 9, 10; response to elections of Abu Bakr 12; and Uthman 22–3; election as caliph 25–6; conflicts and battles 26–7; cursing of 44; role
in daily prayer 128; attitude to of al-Hakim 56, 57; fate of birthplace 236; see Rightly Guided Caliphs, Fatimids, Shiites, Alids
Ali, Mehmet 236, 253
Alice of France 151
Alids 41, 43, 128, 135
Allenby, General Edmund 246, 249, 250
Alp Arslan 53, 80
Alphonse of Poitiers 187, 188
Amalfi 105
Amalric, king of Jerusalem
marriage 106; character 132; doctrinal error of 107; and Edessan exiles 132; campaigns in Egypt 114, 126, 131, 133; burns Bilbais and loses support 132; death 136
Ami, Mehmet 236
al-Amin 43
Amorium 44
Amr ibn al-As, Muslim general 15, 36
conquers Egypt 19–20; and Umar 20; dismissed by Uthman 24
Anagni 213
Anatolia 125, 221
lost by Byzantines to Muslims 15, 16; taken by Seljuqs 53; Alexius I seeks to recover 71, 72, 80, 83; used as route by Louis VII 119; and Barbarossa 155; and rise of Ottomans 207, 220; targeted by Hospitallers 215, 216, 231; and Haj Bektash 228; sultan of 118
al-Andalus 36
Andrew, St 89
Angers 75
Angevin Empire 148
Angevins 149, 151
Ankara 249, 254
battle of 222
Annals of Hildesheim 61
anti-Semitism 79, 90, 151, 244, 248, 252, 266, 271
see also Jews; Judaism
Antichrist 157
Antioch 121
Heraclius’s base 14, 15; loss by Byzantium in 1086 80; besieged by crusaders 85–90; aided by Baldwin from Edessa 85; rescued by Baldwin II after Field of Blood III; disastrous stay at, by Louis VII 119; approaches to, by Nur al-Din 123, 124, 126; Raymond of Poitiers killed by Nur al-Din 126; Bohemond III, ruler, makes peace with Saladin 153; Bohemond IV takes refuge in Tripoli and Baybars massacres inhabitants 203–4; see also Manuel’s ceremonial entry 124
Antiochenes 125
Apamea 123
Aqaba 108, 139, 249
al-Aqsa mosque, Jerusalem
commissioned by Umar 18–19; roof a refuge for Muslims at capture of Jerusalem 96, 97; stables of Hospitallers 110; Saladin prays all night in 162–3; restored by Baybars 202; preserved by Moshe Dayan 252; Nur al-Din’s minbar xi, xii, 126, 129, 145
Aquitaine 119, 149, 151, 165
dukes of 68
Aragon 210, 217
Aramaeans 15
Aramco 256
Arculf 18
el-Arish, Egypt 19, 20, 101
Armenia 168, 212, 232
Armenians 84, 85, 86, 98, 104, 107, 145
Arnulf of Choques 98
Arqa 91, 92
Arras, bishop of 72, 73
Arsenal Bible 189
Arslan, Kilij 81–4
Arsuf 100
secured by Baldwin I, captured by Baybars 203; battle of 160, 161
Artah 84-5, 125
Arthur, King 156
Artuk I, governor of Jerusalem 88
Artuqids (alias Ortoqids) 88, 111
Ascalon 137
attacked by Godfrey of Bouillon 98–9, 100; and Baldwin the Conqueror 125, 131; surrendered 144; in conflict between Richard and Saladin 161–4; citadel improved by Richard of Cornwall 185
Ascanian Lake, Nicaea 82, 83
Ashmun Tannah 187
al-Ashraf 197–8
Asquith, Lord 249
Assassins 81, 98, 137, 161, 195, 201
atabegs 90, 103, 116, 120, 127, 266
battles with 81–5
Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal) 248–9, 253–4, 272
Athlit (Chåteau Pèlerin) 178
Austria, duke of 177
Austria-Hungary 242, 243
Avignon 211, 215
Aybeg 195
Ayyub, Najm al-Din, father of Saladin
mercenary serving Zangi 117; and Unur of Damascus 120; complicity with Nur al-Din 123; advises Saladin 136
Ayyubids 168–9, 172, 177 178, 180, 183, 185, 189, 192, 199, 201, 202 see al-Adil; al-Kamil; al-Muazzam; al-Salih Ayyub
al-Azhar mosque, Cairo 50
al-Azimi 78
al-Aziz, Fatimid caliph 55
B
Baalbek 117
al-Babayn, battle of, between Amalric and Shirkuh 133
Babylonian Captivity of Avignonese Papacy 215
Badr, battle of 5, 253
Badr al-Jamali 98
Baghdad, capital of Abbasid
caliphate created by al-Mansur 40, 41
intellectual life see Harun al-Rashid; transfer of capital to Samarra 45; decay and failure of irrigation 45; poor Shiites in 42–3; and al-Hallaj 50; and Tughril Beg 53; Abbasid court in, receives complaint about Jerusalem massacre; provincialism 208; capture by Hulegu 196; by Ottomans 232
Baha ad-Din 153
Baha al-Dwala 51
Bahr al-Nil 194
Bahrain 8, 49
bahriyya 192, 194, 195, 196, 206
Bait Nuba 162
Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury,
preaches cross in Wales 74
dies at siege of Acre 158
Baldwin, count of Flanders 171
Baldwin I, the Conqueror, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon; as Baldwin of Boulogne, joins Tancred in expedition to Cilicia 85; takes Edessa 85; receives poor crusaders seeking food 91; seizes power after death of Godfrey 100; crowned at Bethlehem 100, 106; campaigns and achievements 100–101, 107, 108, 110, 111, 125; pattern for Amalric 126; childlessness 114; death at el-Arish 101; burial in Church of Sepulchre 101; see chaplain, Fulcher of Chartres
Baldwin II, king of Jerusalem character 111; supports Templars 109, 110; rescues Antioch 111; decisions on clergy at assembly of Nablus 111; marriage 114
Baldwin III, king of Jerusalem coronation with his mother Melisende 114; subsequent struggle with her 114; and Second Crusade 120; captures Ascalon 125, 131; subordination to Manuel Comnenus 124, 125; marriage 114
Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem,
Baldwin the Leper and William of Tyre 107; defeats Saladin at Montgisard 137; builds castle at Jacob’s Ford 138; Guy of Lusignan his bailli 141; childlessness and its consequences 114
Baldwin V, king of Jerusalem 139
Baldwin of Bourcq succeeds Baldwin I at Edessa 100
Balearics 191, 218
Balfour, Arthur 250
declaration 250
Balian of Ibelin 142, 144
Balkans 221, 223
Baltic crusades 175
Banu Qurayza clan 5
Banyas 121
al-Baqr, Muhammad, Shiite imam 42
Baraka 206
Barber, Malcolm 114
Barjawan 55
Barmakid dynasty 43
Bartholomew, Peter 89, 91
Basil II the Bulgar-slayer, Byzantine emperor 221
Basques 147
Basra 22, 26, 28, 32, 41
Battle of the Bridge 16
Baybars, Sultan 106, 192–206
background 192; and death of Turanshah 195; and Qutuz 196, 197, 198; Battle of Ain Jalud 197, 207, 267; and defeat of Mongols 198; sultan of Cairo 198–202; appoints puppet caliphs 199–200; and the Assassins 201; castle-breaking 202–4; death 205
Bayezid I 221, 222
Bayezid II 228
Beaufort 203
Bedouins 1, 9, 36, 49, 58, 107, 249
Beirut 139, 153, 251, 258
Bektash, Haji 228
Bektashi Dervish movement 228
Belgrade 221, 224
Belval priory, Lorraine 74
Beni Hanifa 13
Benjamin, Coptic patriarch 20
Berbers 33, 48, 49, 50, 217
Berengaria of Navarre, Richard the Lionheart’s queen 151, 157, 158, 241
Berke Khan 200–201
Berlin, Congress of 243–4
Bernard of Clairvaux, stimulates rise of Templars 109
preaches cross in Speyer 118; and French-speaking laws 118; and failure of Second Crusade 122; upbraids Amalric 132; and Véz
elay 151–2; sent letter by Lionheart 160
Bertran de Born 147–8
Bethany abbey 105
Bethlehem 95, 100, 106, 184
basilica of the Nativity 217
Bible, the 37
Bilbais and al-Hakim 55
burnt by Amalric 132
Bill of Rights 268
al-Bira 200
Black Sea 244
Blair Foundation xii
Blanche of Castile 186
Blaye 147
Bloch, Marc 112
Blois, count of 171
Bohemia 79, 222
Bohemond III of Antioch 153
Bohemond VI 203
Bohemond of Taranto joins First Crusade 80; at Nicaea 82; skill at Dorylaeum 83–4; in siege of Antioch 86–91; quarrel with Raymond of Toulouse 90–91
Boissy Sans Avoir, lord of 78
Boko Haram 255, 270
Bolsheviks 250, 271
Boniface VIII, Pope 71, 210–211, 213
Unam Sanctam 211
Bordeaux 147, 211
Bosnia 255
Bosnia–Herzegovina 243
Bosphorus 246
Bostra, Syria 14
Bouqia valley 125
Bourbon monarchy 238
Brindisi 175
Britain 253
and Congress of Berlin 242, 243, 244; Gladstone speaks for, at Blackheath 243; campaigns against Turks 246, 247–8, 250; and Crimean War 247; and Ibn Saud 256; and Hospitallers 255–9, 261; University Mission to Central Africa 260; and Isil 274; see also England
British Empire 259
Bruges 171
Buddhism, Buddhists 34, 189, 265
Bukhara 35
Bulgaria 221, 243
Bulgarian rising 242
Bulgarians 242, 243, 244
Buraq (winged steed) 19
Burdett Psalter 207
Burid dynasty 120, 123
burka see niqab
Burne-Jones, Edward 241
Burzey, Nusairi mountains 165
Bush, George W. 268
Busra 219
Buyids 50, 51, 53
Byzantine army 9, 14–17, 19, 21, 24, 83, 87
Byzantine Church 66, 72, 107
patriarch of the 64
Byzantine Empire 13, 14, 20, 35, 53, 61, 104, 155, 220, 222
Byzantine navy 24, 29, 172
Byzantium 63, 111, 114, 173, 190, 247, 262
Battle of Mutah 8–9; Persians enemies of Byzantium 13; and Abu Bakr 14; central leadership 35; Harun al-Rashid’s campaign 43; Bohemond of Taranto’s claim 80; relations with the West 89, 92, 215; wealth and authority of 124; ghazi tradition of resistance to 219
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